1. PERIODIC EARTH IMPACTS
2. EARTH IMPACT SIMULATIONS
   • THE 'BIG CRACK' OR THE HILINA SLUMP
   • ESTIMATED CURRENT HUMAN DEATHS FROM A COSMIC IMPACT
3. EARTH IMPACT EVIDENCE
4. COMETARY ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE
5. PREHISTORIC STRIKES
6. PLEISTOCENE STRIKES AND NEANDERTHALS

• Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it.
• Do not believe in anything simply because it is spoken and rumoured by many.
• Do not believe in anything simply because it is found written in your religious books.
• Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders.
• Do not believe in traditions because they have been handed down for many generations.
• But after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it.

- Gautama Buddha

1. PERIODIC EARTH IMPACTS
   • EXTINCTION EVENTS: SIX TIMES THE WORLD ENDED - May 28, 2021
     While a meteor is presumed to have caused the last great extinction event in our planet’s history 66 million years ago, the Earth had already gone through many others in the thousands of millions of years that life existed before. Let’s look back through eons of time to explain the planet’s worst extinction events and why scientists think we may be in the middle of one right now.
   • POSSIBLE PATTERN IN EXTINCTION EVENTS THAT RAVAGED EARTH IN ANCIENT TIMES DISCOVERED, MEDIA SAYS - 16.12.2020
     It seems that large-body impacts and the pulses of internal Earth activity that create flood-basalt volcanism may be marching to the same 27 million-year drumbeat as the extinctions, perhaps paced by our orbit in the galaxy," Michael Rampino, a professor from the Department of Biology at New York University and lead author of the study, said.
   • ASTEROIDS AREN'T COMPLETELY RANDOM? MASS EXTINCTIONS OF EARTH'S LAND ANIMALS FOLLOW A CYCLE, STUDY FINDS - Dec 11, 2020
     • Mass extinctions coincide with major asteroid impacts and devastating volcanic outpourings of lava.
     • Paleontologists had previously discovered that similar mass extinctions of marine life were not random events.
     • We're about 20 million years away from the next predicted mass extinction.
   • SCIENTISTS REVEAL LARGE METEORITES 'LIKE NUCLEAR BOMB' HIT EARTH EVERY 180 YEARS - 15.12.2019
     "It looks like we're getting at least one big meteorite - by big, more than say, 25 meters or so, every 180 years," Barrows said. "There's probably been four craters formed by meteorites hitting Earth in just the last 60 or 70 years."
   • * VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES AND THE 3,600 YEAR COMET CYCLE - 01 Dec. 2019
     To summarize, the evidence suggests that a comet (or cometary swarm) interacted with Earth ca. 14,400 BP, 10,800 BP, 7,200 BP and 3,600 BP. That is to say, on a 3,600-year cycle, meaning that we are due a repeat performance around now. Indeed, the American Meteor Society's records of observed fireballs worldwide over the past 13 years suggest that the 'show' might actually have already begun:
   • NEW STUDY REVEALS LINK BETWEEN MASS EXTINCTION EVENTS AND COMET/ASTEROID SHOWERS - Oct 20, 2015
     For more than three decades, researchers have argued about a controversial hypothesis relating to periodic mass extinctions and asteroid/comet impact craters on Earth. Dr Ken Caldeira of Carnegie Institution and Dr Michael Rampino of New York University offer new support linking the age of these craters with recurring mass extinctions of life, including the demise of the dinosaurs. Specifically, they show a cyclical pattern over the studied period, with both impacts and extinction events taking place every 26 million years.
   • SCIENTISTS FIND LINK BETWEEN COMET AND ASTEROID SHOWERS AND MASS EXTINCTIONS - October 20, 2015
     Specifically, he and Caldeira found that six mass extinctions of life during the studied period correlate with times of enhanced impact cratering on Earth. One of the craters considered in the study is the large (180 km diameter) Chicxulub impact structure in the Yucatan, which dates at about 65 million years ago-the time of a great mass extinction that included the dinosaurs.
     Moreover, they add, five out of the six largest impact craters of the last 260 million years on earth correlate with mass extinction events.
     "This cosmic cycle of death and destruction has without a doubt affected the history of life on our planet," Rampino observes.
   • ROGUE ASTEROIDS AND COMET SHOWERS COULD PUMMEL EARTH AS IT PASSES THROUGH GALACTIC DANGER ZONe - 21 OCT 2015
     Our solar system is currently speeding through a region called the galactic mid- plane, which is though to contain mysterious dark matter.
     It is feared our passage through this intergalactic danger zone could send massive comets and asteroids flying towards Earth.
     Earth and its planetary neighbours are surrounded by orbiting asteroids whose movement can be easily predicted.
     But rogue asteroids are less easy to study, as it is impossible to accurately predict their journey.
   • DON'T PANIC: EVEN IF ASTEROID SHOWERS CAUSE MASS EXTINCTIONS ... ... humans still have several million years in the bank - 21 Oct 2015
   • EARTH COULD BE AT RISK OF METEOR IMPACTS AND WE MIGHT WRONGLY HAVE ASSUMED WE ARE IN A SAFE ERA, SCIENTISTS WARN - 21 October 2015
     Humans have presumed that they are in a safe part of the 'cosmic cycle of death and destruction', scientists warn, but that might be wrong
   • EXPLORING THE ROLE OF THE SUN'S MOTION IN TERRESTRIAL COMET IMPACTS - June 5, 2014
   • EXPLORING THE ROLE OF THE SUN'S MOTION IN TERRESTRIAL COMET IMPACTS - June 8, 2014
   • B612 FOUNDATION
   • LIST OF IMPACTS FROM B612 FOUNDATION IMPACT VIDEO
     • 8/25/2000 (1-10 kilotons) NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
     • 4/23/2001 (1-10 kilotons) NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
     • 3/9/2002 (1-10 kilotons) NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
     • 8/9/2006 (1-10 kilotons) INDIAN OCEAN
     • 9/2/2006 (1-10 kilotons) INDIAN OCEAN
     • 10/2/2006 (1-10 kilotons) ARABIAN SEA
     • 12/9/2006 (10-20 kilotons) EGYPT
     • 9/22/2007 (1-10 kilotons) INDIAN OCEAN
     • 12/26/2007 (1-10 kilotons) SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN
     • 10/7/2008 (1-10 kilotons) SUDAN
     • 10/8/2009 (>20 kilotons) SOUTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA
     • 9/3/2010 (10-20 kilotons) SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN
     • 12/25/2010 (1-10 kilotons) TASMAN SEA
     • 4/22/2012 (1-10 kilotons) CALIFORNIA, USA
     • 2/15/2013 (>20 kilotons) CHELYABINSK, OBLAST, RUSSIA
     • 4/21/2013 (1-10 kilotons) SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, ARGENTINA
     • 4/30/2013 (10-20 kilotons) NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
   • AN ICE AGE EVERY 100,000 YEARS: WHY? SEE 122,000 YEAR SIMULATION OF ICE SHEETS - August 7, 2013
   • DISCLOSURE AND COMETS - 2012/03/13
     Some of the recent 'Disclosure' trends seem to include information from ‘government insiders’ who have told their stories, or whispered hints of amazing technology just waiting for all of us when this 'inevitable' event happens. Sorry, but I think its all wishful thinking. Why? Because what is interesting to me is the fact that, with all the tracking of government documents and conspiracies and so on, it seems that no one has mentioned to the purveyors of 'Disclosure' just how interested the government actually is in cometary impacts.
     On 4 November 1996, Edward Teller wrote to then British Prime Minister, John Major:

     Every few human lifetimes, there is a bombardment event like that which occurred in Siberia in 1908, wiping out most life over an area of about 10,000 square miles… Quantitatively, the time-averaged loss-of-life is comparable to that due to large floods, earthquakes and aeroplane crashes… The advent during the last half-century of reasonably large-scale rocket propulsion has given us the technological means necessary to avert such impacts. Teller, apparently, believed that the greatest threat to humankind is not nuclear war, but asteroid or comet impact.

     Dr. Jasper Wall, director of Britain's Royal Greenwich Observatory, Cambridge noted that the Tunguska blast could have had far more serious consequences, would have changed history, if it had occurred at a different time. Had Earth moved for another three hours or so before the impact occurred, the target would not have been a barely populated corner of Siberia, but Moscow itself. Ten million people would have died. [interview conducted by Austen Atkinson, 1998] Tunguska sized events occur every 30 to 100 years and smaller incidents occur more frequently. Just such an event occurred in Brazil in 1931. They seem to be increasing, so any day there could be another Tunguska anywhere on the planet… or multiple Tunguska-size events.
     Because of the hold that religious uniformitarianism has on the minds of most members of our civilization, the concept of cometary impacts has been relegated to popular fiction and entertainment. The scientific community has been uniformly slow in understanding the wider implications across disciplines from astronomy to geology to economics and history.
     Using energy equations similar to those developed by Teller, which take into account environmental and atmospheric factors, Sandia's team of scientists were able to create virtual-reality simulations of a catastrophic impact. This project was led by David Crawford and Arthurine Breckenridge. They modeled the impact of a 1.4 kilometer-diameter comet, weighing approximately 1,000 million tons and traveling at 60 km/s as it strikes the Atlantic Ocean 25 miles south of New York.
     Five seconds after the comet hits the ocean, a tremendous impact plume composed of superheated debris, earth and water, smothers most of Long Island. Eleven seconds after impact, the New York coastline is swept by superheated steam and ejected debris. At the same time, a large proportion of the ejected debris has now penetrated Earth's atmosphere in sub-orbital trajectories. Molten ejecta begins to fall on New York and the heat generated by the impact has begun to incinerate everything in its path - entire cities and forests are turned into cinders almost instantly. Finally, the global debris cloud rapidly lowers temperatures worldwide and this is followed by the moisture evaporated into the atmosphere starting to fall as snow.
   • WITCHES, COMETS, AND PLANETARY CATACLYSMS - 2012/03/10
     In Britain, further research by astronomers Clube and Napier, Prof. Mark Bailey of the Armagh Observatory, Duncan Steel of Spaceguard Australia, and Britain’s best known astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle, all led to their support of the theory of cometary impact loosely termed the 'British School of Coherent Catastrophism'.
     Every one of those 100-plus cosmic bodies is at least a half-mile in diameter and some are miles wide. And what do they have in common? According to those scientists, every one is the offspring of the same massive comet that first entered our system less than 20,000 years ago! Clube and Napier calculated that, to account for all the debris they found strewn throughout our solar system, the original comet had to have been enormous.
     Clube and Napier also calculated that, because of subtle changes in the orbits of Earth and the remaining cosmic debris, Earth crosses through the densest part of the giant comet clouds about every 2,000 to 4,000 years. When we look at climate and ice-core records, we can see that pattern. For example, the iridium, helium-3, nitrate, ammonium, and other key measurements seem to rise and fall in tandem, producing noticeable peaks around 18,000, 16,000, 13,000, 9,000, 5,000, and 2,000 years ago. In that pattern of peaks every 2,000 to 4,000 years, we may be seeing the 'calling cards' of the returning mega-comet.
     The above quote is a reconstruction of events in Constantinople, AD 472, extracted from Rain of Iron and Ice (1996) by John S. Lewis. According to Dr. Lewis, whose fanciful scenario of what it might be like to witness an overhead cometary fragment explosion, our Earth actually experiences these types of events rather often, even if somewhat irregularly. Explosions in the sky – some of them enormous – have, according to him and many other scientists, profoundly affected the history of humanity. One obvious prospect is the great Antioch earthquake of AD 526 which was described by John Malalas:
   • DAN BRITT - ORBITS AND ICE AGES: THE HISTORY OF CLIMATE - Feb 08, 2012
     Climate change has become a major political issue, but few understand how climate has changed in the past and the forces that drive climate. Most people don't know that fifty million years ago there were breadfruit trees and crocodiles on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, or that 18,000 years ago there was a mile-thick glacier on Manhattan and a continuous belt of winter sea ice extending south to Cape Hatteras. The History of Climate provides context of our current climate debate and fundamental insight how the climate works.
     Dr. Daniel Britt is a Professor of Astronomy and Planetary Sciences at the Department of Physics, University of Central Florida. He was educated at the University of Washington and Brown University, receiving a Ph.D. from Brown in 1991. He has had a varied career including service in the US Air Force as an ICBM missile launch officer and an economist for Boeing before going into planetary sciences. He has served on the science teams of two NASA missions, Mars Pathfinder and Deep Space 1. He was the project manager for the camera on Mars Pathfinder and has built hardware for all the NASA Mars landers.
     Britt currently does research on the physical properties and mineralogy of asteroids, comets, the Moon, and Mars under several NASA grants. Honors include 5 NASA Achievement Awards, election as a Fellow of the Meteoritical Society, and an asteroid named after him; 4395 Dan Britt. He is currently President of the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society.
     Discusses the now discredited (by Sir Fred Hoyle) Milankovitch Cycles.
   • FORMAL SUBDIVISION OF THE HOLOCENE SERIES/ - Journal Of Quaternary Science (2012)
     ABSTRACT
     We propose an Early–Middle Holocene Boundary at 8200 BP and a Middle–Late Holocene Boundary at 4200 BP, each of which is linked to a Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP).
     FIGURE 2.
     It is dated on the GICC05 timescaleto 8236 b2k (8186 cal. a BP), and is proposed as the marker for the Early–Middle Holocene boundary
     Accordingly, we propose an age for the Middle–Late Holocene boundary of 4200 cal a BP, and that the isotopic signal in the Mawmluh Cave stalagmite should constitute the GSSP for this boundary
   • DEATH FROM ABOVE - Dec 05, 2010
     The Earth suffers an impact from an asteroid or comet generating more energy than the explosion of the atomic bomb at Hiroshima every year. The size of the asteroids involved is around 5-10 meters across.
   • DANGEROUS SPACE ROCKS - Oct. 30, 2010
     
   • WITCHES, COMETS AND PLANETARY CATACLYSMS - 30 Oct 2010
     And what do they have in common? According to those scientists, every one is the offspring of the same massive comet that first entered our system less than 20,000 years ago! Clube and Napier calculated that, to account for all the debris they found strewn throughout our solar system, the original comet had to have been enormous.
     Earth crosses through the densest part of the giant comet clouds about every 2,000 to 4,000 years. When we look at climate and ice-core records, we can see that pattern. For example, the iridium, helium-3, nitrate, ammonium, and other key measurements seem to rise and fall in tandem, producing noticeable peaks around 18,000, 16,000, 13,000, 9,000, 5,000, and 2,000 years ago. In that pattern of peaks every 2,000 to 4,000 years, we may be seeing the 'calling cards' of the returning mega-comet.
     Clube and Napier (1984) predicted that , in the year 2000 and continuing for 400 years, Earth would enter another dangerous time in which the planet's changing orbit would bring us into a potential collision course with the densest parts of the clouds containing some very large debris.
     In short, what the work of Lewis brings to the table is the idea that some well- known historical earthquakes could very well have been impact events. The dates that these researchers have given to events that can be discerned in the scientific records are 12,800, 8,200, 5,200, and 4,200 BP ('years Before the Present'). These can be adjusted as more precise dating methods are developed or applied.
     The 12,800 B.P. event is the one of most interest because that is the one which, apparently, nearly destroyed all life on earth. At the very least, it destroyed the mega-fauna on all continents. Plato wrote about the catastrophic destruction of Atlantis which occurred in a day and a night about 11,600 years ago, which is pretty darn close.
     A comet came and nearly destroyed humanity at the end of October 13,000 years ago, and impacting debris from the same comet brought Judaism, Christianity, Islam and, later, the imposition of Christianity on the Western world. Later still, the same comet stream brought the Black Death and the persecution of witches, both male and female. This scape-goating was utilized to get rid of a lot of individuals who threatened the status quo - the control over the masses - and that included a great many strong, independent women.
   • 8. CATASTROPHIC IMPACTS IN EARTH'S HISTORY - Sep 17, 2010
     (February 2, 2010) David Morrison, NASA Lunar Science Institute, discusses the discovery of the cretaceous catastrophe that caused the last mass extinction and explains NASA's research on the danger of similar events occurring in Earth's near future.
   • COMET COLLISIONS WON’T SPARK THE END OF THE WORLD - 30 July 2009
     Researchers used computer models to simulate the formation of comet clouds in the solar system for 1.2 billion years. They pinpointed a body called the Oort Cloud as the source for many long-period comets that find their way into Earth’s path.
     Wrong model- see above link for past events. Try this One!
   • METEORITES, ASTEROIDS, AND COMETS: DAMAGES, DISASTERS, INJURIES, DEATHS, AND VERY CLOSE CALLS - 27 Mar 2008
     As Victor Clube wrote in his letter to SOTT.net:
     

     First, I should say your references to the (cosmically complacent) paleoclimate community and to my otherwise unread narrative report to the USAF european office strike a very considerable chord with me. After all neither Ms Victoria Cox nor your good self can be aware how very much Bill and I had reason to appreciate the timely injection of USAF funds at a time when the line of research we championed appeared to be successfully closed down by the UK scientific establishment. Thus we were both in turn obliged to relinquish our career posts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh on account of this line of research - which gave rise to our reincarnation at a more tolerant haven namely my alma mater (Oxford).
     
     Also, whilst I broadly accept your commentary regarding the role of "national elites" in the face of near-Earth threats, I am quite certain the elites in practice currently know VERY "much LESS than they let on" and that the situation for humanity is dire. Any comfort you may draw from the opposite opinion seems to me to be entirely misplaced. Thus although the globally modest efforts to assess the NEO threat with telescopes by a few semi-enlightened national administrations (eg USA) or by a few private enterprises (eg Gates) are certainly to be commended, I look upon this aspect of the NEO threat as basically intermittent and therefore more or less symbolic so far as generally more urgent and still largely undetected low mass NEO flux (which is demonstrably climatological in its effect) is concerned. This particular threat (evidently responsible for our planet's evolving glacial/interglacial condition during the past 3 million years) is of course _fundamentally_ ignored by the current Body Scientific and hence by most of humanity as well.

     Lewis writes in Comet and Asteroid Impact Hazards on a Populated Earth:
     

     Many ancient sources from many cultures treat comets as literal, physical harbingers of doom. Such phenomena as the burning of cities and the overthrow of buildings and walls by aerial events are mentioned many times in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Chinese records, but there is no evidence of physical understanding of the nature of the bombarding objects or their effects until quite recently. [
     
     There is indeed a language problem in understanding the ancient reports, but it is largely a matter of the lack of an appropriate technical vocabulary in the older writings. [...] In certain locations and periods, especially in medieval Europe, all unusual heavenly events were interpreted as signs sent by God. Therefore, the surviving accounts are strongly biased toward explaining the moral purpose of these events, not their physical nature. Such fundamental information as exact date and time, exact location, place of appearance of the phenomenon in the sky, its duration and physical extent, luminosity, precise nature of the damage done, and the like were generally regarded as unimportant, and therefore rarely recorded for posterity. [...] Even in 20th century newspapers, bolide explosions may be described (and indexed) as "mysterious explosions," aerial blasts, aerolites, aeroliths, bolides, earthquakes, fireballs, meteorites, meteors, shocks, thunder, and so on. [...]

     
     
     Reports of meteorite falls, often with consequent damage, extend back to the fall of a "thunderstone" in Crete in 1478 BC, described by Malchus in the Chronicle of Paros. The earliest Biblical source is the account of a lethal fall of stones in ... Joshua 10:11. [...]
     
     Other ancient reports in the West are found in the writings of Pausanius, Plutarch, Livy, Pindar, Valerius Maximus, Caesar, and many others. The report of a great fall of black dust at Constantinople in 472 BC, perhaps the result of a high-altitude airburst, is documented by Procopius, Ammianus Marcellinus, Theophanes, and others.
     
     Colonel S. P. Worden has called to my attention the following passage in The History of the Franks, written by Bishop Gregory of Tours:

     "580 AD in Louraine, one morning before the dawning of the day, a great light was seen crossing the heavens, falling toward the east. A sound like that of a tree crashing down was heard over all the countryside, but it could surely not have been any tree, since it was heard more than fifty miles away... the city of Bordeaux was badly shaken by an earthquake ... a supernatural fire burned down villages about Bordeaux. It took hold so rapidly that houses and even threshing- floors with all their grain were burned to ashes. Since there was absolutely no other visible cause of the fire, it must have happened by divine will. The city of Orleans also burned with so great a fire that even the rich lost almost everything."

     
     
     Kevin Yau has searched Chinese records and found many reports of deaths and injuries (Yau et al., 1994). The Chinese records of lethal impact events include the death of 10 victims from a meteorite fall in 616 AD, an "iron rain" in the O-chia district in the 14th century that killed people and animals, several soldiers injured by the fall of a "large star" in Ho-t'ao in 1369, and many others. The most startling is a report of an event in early 1490 in Ch'ing-yang, Shansi, in which many people were killed when stones "fell like rain." Of the three known surviving reports of this event, one says that "over 10,000 people" were killed, and one says that "several tens of thousands" were killed.
     
     On 14 September 1511, a meteorite fall in Cremona, Lombardy, Italy, reportedly killed a monk, several birds, and a sheep. In the 17th century we find reports of a monk in Milano, Italy, who was struck by a meteorite that severed his femoral artery, causing him to bleed to death, and of two sailors killed on shipboard by a meteorite fall in the Indian Ocean.
     
     In addition to these shipboard fatalities, there have been several striking accounts of near disasters involving impacts very close to ships. Near midnight of 24 February 1885, at a latitude of 37 degrees N and a longitude of 170 degrees 15 minutes E in the North Pacific, the crew of the barque Innerwich, en route from Japan to Vancouver, saw the sky turn fiery red: "A large mass of fire appeared over the vessel, completely blinding the spectators; and, as it fell into the sea some 50 yards to leeward, it caused a hissing sound, which was heard above the blast, and made the vessel quiver from stem to stem.
     
     Captain C.D. Swart of the Dutch barque J.P.A. reported in the American Journal of Meteorology 4 (1887) that, when sailing at 37 degrees 39 minutes N and 57degrees W, at about 5 pm on 19 March 1887, during a severe storm in which it was "as dark as night above," two brilliant fireballs appeared as in a sea of fire. One bolide "fell into the water very close alongside the vessel with a roar, and caused the sea to make tremendous breakers which swept over the vessel. A suffocating atmosphere and perspiration ran down every person's face on board and caused everyone to gasp for fresh air. Immediately after this, solid lumps of ice fell on deck, and everything on deck and in the rigging became iced, notwithstanding that the thermometer registered 19 degrees C."
     
     On 20 August 1907, the steamship Cambrian arrived in Boston from England with an equally extraordinary tale to tell. When the ship was several hundred miles south of Cape Race, Newfoundland, steaming along under a clear sky, a brilliant fireball appeared near the northeastern horizon and "rushed across the sky like a rocket. The next moment it passed over the topmast of the liner with a tremendous roar and plowed up the sea about fifty yards from the boat.
     
     On 20 August 1907, the steamship Cambrian arrived in Boston from England with an equally extraordinary tale to tell. When the ship was several hundred miles south of Cape Race, Newfoundland, steaming along under a clear sky, a brilliant fireball appeared near the northeastern horizon and "rushed across the sky like a rocket. The next moment it passed over the topmast of the liner with a tremendous roar and plowed up the sea about fifty yards from the boat.
   • MOVE OVER GLOBAL WARMING, LET'S TALK ABOUT GLOBAL CATASTROPHES - Jul 20, 2008
   • TSUNAMI CHRONOLOGY SUPPORTING LATE HOLOCENE IMPACTS - 2008-09-26
     The presence of tsunami deposits along the coast of Western Australia has been described in a number of studies,
     There again are ten significant tsunami events. This time centred on 4200 BC, 2870 BC, 2150 BC, 100 BC, AD 540, AD 790,AD 1040, AD 1300, AD 1440, and AD 1680.
     The 1440 event overlaps with the AD 1491 mega-tsunami event documented along the New South Wales coast of Australia.
     The second event dated at AD 540 coincides with a catastrophic event triggered in AD 535 by an unknown explosion or eruption in the Indonesian-Northern Australian region(Keyes, 2000). Abbott et al. (2007) believe that the explosion has its source in a comet that fragmented into two and struck the Gulf of Carpentaria in northeast Australia. However, any tsunami generated in the Gulf would not have entered the Indian Ocean. The event around 2870BC corresponds to a global catastrophe caused by a comet impact in 2807 BC documented by Masse (2007) and linked to the Burckle Impact crater shown in Figure 1.. Finally, an event centred on 2150 BC may also have a cosmic origin although the evidence is less conclusive. It stiming corresponds with the fall of the Akkadian empire in the Middle East at around 2200 BC, which has been linked to an impact (Masse, 2007).
   • A NEW GREENLAND ICE CORE CHRONOLOGY FOR THE LAST GLACIAL TERMINATION - Journal Of Geophysical Research DOI:10.1029/2005
     Event in b2k or YA
     • Upper limit of presented time scale 7,903 +/- 41
     • Time scale datum (8.2 ka cold event) 8,236 +/- 47
     • Saksunarvatn volcanic layer 10,347 +/- 89
     • YD – Preboreal transition 11,703 +/- 99
     • Vedde volcanic layer (Z1) 12,171 +/- 114
     • Onset of Younger Dryas 12,896 +/- 138
     • End of Bølling 14,075 +/- 169
     • Onset Bølling 14,692 +/- 186
     • Lower limit of presented time 14,776 +/- 190
   • CATASTROPHIST THEORIES OF LIFE GAINING GROUND : IT CAME FROM OUTER SPACE - August 23, 2001
   • THE SKY IS FALLING
     The odds that a potentially devastating space rock will hit Earth this century may be as high as one in 10. So why isn't NASA trying harder to prevent catastrophe?
     Abbott believes that a space object about 300 meters in diameter hit the Gulf of Carpentaria, north of Australia, in 536 A.D. An object that size, striking at up to 50,000 miles per hour, could release as much energy as 1,000 nuclear bombs. Debris, dust, and gases thrown into the atmosphere by the impact would have blocked sunlight, temporarily cooling the planet—and indeed, contemporaneous accounts describe dim skies, cold summers, and poor harvests in 536 and 537. "Amost dread portent took place," the Byzantine historian Procopius wrote of 536; the sun "gave forth its light without brightness." Frost reportedly covered China in the summertime. Still, the harm was mitigated by the ocean impact. When a space object strikes land, it kicks up more dust and debris, increasing the global-cooling effect; at the same time, the combination of shock waves and extreme heating at the point of impact generates nitric and nitrous acids, producing rain as corrosive as battery acid. If the Gulf of Carpentaria object were to strike Miami today, most of the city would be leveled, and the atmospheric effects could trigger crop failures around the world.
     What's more, the Gulf of Carpentaria object was a skipping stone compared with an object that Abbott thinks whammed into the Indian Ocean near Madagascar some 4,800 years ago, or about 2,800 B.C. Researchers generally assume that a space object a kilometer or more across would cause significant global harm: widespread destruction, severe acid rain, and dust storms that would darken the world's skies for decades. The object that hit the Indian Ocean was three to five kilometers across, Abbott believes, and caused a tsunami in the Pacific 600 feet high—many times higher than the 2004 tsunami that struck Southeast Asia. Ancient texts such as Genesis and the Epic of Gilgamesh support her conjecture, describing an unspeakable planetary flood in roughly the same time period. If the Indian Ocean object were to hit the sea now, many of the world's coastal cities could be flattened. If it were to hit land, much of a continent would be leveled; years of winter and mass starvation would ensue.
     This web site dates Noah's great flood to 3195 BC, not 2800 BC. The error bounds on the 2800 BC value are unknown, but the tree ring data should be good to 10 or 20 years or better, or so one would think.
   • 'BAND OF MISFITS' THEORY: METEORS ARE NOT THAT RARE
     On close inspection, the chevron deposits contain deep-ocean microfossils that are fused with a medley of metals typically formed by cosmic impacts. And all of them point in the same direction - toward the middle of the Indian Ocean where a newly discovered crater, 29 kilometers, or 18 miles, in diameter, lies 3,800 meters, or 12,500 feet, below the surface.
     The explanation is obvious to some scientists. A large asteroid or comet, the kind that could kill a quarter of the world's population, smashed into the Indian Ocean 4,800 years ago, producing a tsunami at least 183 meters high, about 13 times as big as the one that inundated Indonesia nearly two years ago. The wave carried the huge deposits of sediment to land.
     Scientists in the working group say the evidence for such impacts during the past 10,000 years, known as the Holocene epoch, is strong enough to overturn current estimates of how often the Earth suffers a violent impact on the order of a 10-megaton explosion. Instead of once in 500,000 to 1 million years, as astronomers now calculate, catastrophic impacts could happen every few thousand years.
   • THE YOUNGER DRYAS
     The Younger Dryas (YD) was the most significant rapid climate change event that occurred during the last deglaciation of the North Atlantic region. The transition into the Preboreal (PB), the PB/YD transition, and the YD/Holocene transition were all remarkably fast, each occurring over a period of a decade or so. (implying that they were due to a comet or meteorite impact. High resolution (mean: 3.48 years/sample), continuous measurements of GISP2 major anions (chloride, sulfate and nitrate) and cations (sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium and ammonium) were used to reconstruct the paleoenvironment during the YD because these series record the history of the major soluble constituents transported in the atmosphere and deposited over central Greenland. The climate change that accompanied the YD was not restricted to Greenland. The record of variations in the CH⁴ concentration of trapped gases in the GRIP ice core shows that tropical and subtropical climates were colder and drier during the YD and also earlier cold events. This may indicate the continued importance of ice sheets and permafrost in limiting the growth of vegetation at higher latitudes until the end of the YD. Both low-latitude source CH⁴ and ammonium rise at the end of the YD.
     Prominent periods of increased dustiness have been observed in the record, peaking approximately every 500 years at:
     • 11.4 kyr BP aka YA (early Preboreal)
     • 11.81 kyr BP aka YA (during the Younger Dryas)
     • 12.22 kyr BP aka YA (during the Younger Dryas)
     • 12.64 kyr BP aka YA (during the Younger Dryas)
     • 13.18 kyr BP aka YA (during the Bolling/Allerod)
     • 13.65 kyr BP aka YA (during the Bolling/Allerod)
     • 14.02 kyr BP aka YA (during the Bolling/Allerod)
     Note, the Holocene Preboreal, Younger Dryas and Bolling/Allerod are climate time periods. BP = Before Present = YA = Years Ago. kyr = thousand years
   • "VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE"
     or
     "VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE"
     Camp Century. Location Date BC. Cluster
     
     • Unknown ? 50?0 192 120
     • Unknown ? 210?0 72 45 A': Cl - 2
     • Unknown ? 260?0 54 35 A': Cl - 2
     • Unknown ? 6060?40 119 75 A: Cl - 1
     • Unknown ? 6230?40 102 65 A: Cl - 1
     • Unknown ? 7090?60 79 50
     • Unknown ? 7240?60 124 80
     • Unknown ? 7500?60 51 35
     • Unknown ? 7640?70 412 260 B:
     • Unknown ? 7710?70 69 45 B:
     • Unknown ? 7810?70 73 45 B:
     • Unknown ? 7910?70 95 60 B:
   • BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GLOBAL CLIMATE - Lamb 1977
     • 1105 AD - Global Climatic Boundary 850 BP (900 YA)
     • 270 AD - Global Climatic Boundary 1680 BP (1730 YA)
     • 810 BC - Global Climatic Boundary 2760 BP (2810 YA)
     • 3110 BC - Global Climatic Boundary (5110 YA)
     • 6550 BC - Global Climatic Boundary 8500 BP (8550 YA)
     • 7350 BC - Global Climatic Boundary 9300 BP (9350 YA)
     • 10,300 BP - Global Climatic Boundary 10,300 BP (10350 YA)
     • 10,800 BP - Global Climatic Boundary (10850 YA)
   • THE CASE FOR SOLAR FORCING OF CLIMATE
     High-resolution analyses of an early Holocene climate event may imply decreased solar forcing as an important climate trigger.
     The authors assembled a wide range of lacustrine, tree-ring, ice-core and marine records that reveal a Northern Hemispheric - and possibly global - cooling event of less than 200 years duration with a 50-year cooling-peak centered at approximately 10,300 years BP. Just a couple more nudges and we should arrive at the seemingly inevitable conclusion that earth's climate on sub-Milankovitch timescales is tightly coupled to variable solar activity. Like the ones caused by comet impacts?
   • HIGH-FREQUENCY MELTING PULSES OF THE FENNOSCANDIAN ICE SHEET DOCUMENTED IN LATE GLACIAL/EARLY HOLOCENE SEDIMENTS OF THE BALTIC SEA
     Three major drainage events at Mt. Billingen in Sweden lowered the lake level considerably and are dated from several sites in Sweden and Finland at average ages of 11,200, 10,300 and 9,900 years B.P.
   • (8) ABRUPT CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE TROPICS
     Throughout the Last Glacial Stage and Holocene have been a series of abrupt changes in climate. Some of these seem to have regional or even global significance. The rate of change is significant for the understanding of future shifts in climate.
     • Zwai-Shalla (Ethiopia) 11600, 8200, ?6700, 4400 Cal BP
     • Bosumtwi (Ghana) 11600, 8300, 3800, 1000 Cal BP
     • Tigalmamine (Morocco) 11700 and 8100 also 5100, 3800, 2300? Cal BP
     • Some evidence from Mexican and Asian lakes
     • Ice core d18O and Methane records
     • 8.1 ka event half magnitude of Younger Dryas
     • North Atlantic marine cores (Bond et al, 1997) 11100 10300 9400 8100 5900 4200 2800 1400 Cal BP
   • LECTURE NOTES
     What caused abrupt events in the tropics? Solar cycles? SST - Bond cycles? Salt water oscillator - thermohaline shutdown.
     Younger Dryas - meltwater from Lake Agassiz; 8.1 ka ?deglaciation of Hudson Bay; others?
     Conclusion: glaciation in high and mid latitudes was matched by important changes in low latitudes:
     • aridity during glaciation
     • increased rainfall during Early Holocene
     • abrupt events demonstrate the interconnectivity of global environmental systems
     • spatial -temporal -processes
     • abrupt changes had a major influence on civilizations
   • READ THE SUNSPOTS
     Climate stability has never been a feature of planet Earth. The only constant about climate is change; it changes continually and, at times, quite rapidly. Many times in the past, temperatures were far higher than today, and occasionally, temperatures were colder. As recently as 6,000 years ago, it was about 3C warmer than now. Ten thousand years ago, while the world was coming out of the thousand-year-long "Younger Dryas" cold episode, temperatures rose as much as 6C in a decade -- 100 times faster than the past century's 0.6C warming that has so upset environmentalists.
   • THE YOUNGER DRYAS IMPACT EVENT
   • THE EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENTAL SEQUENCE Bond Cycles (cold events) Solar Forcing or NADW "900 or 1500 - year" cycle.
     Cycle number
     • 8. 11,100 yr
     • 7. 10,300 yr
     • 6. 9500 yr
     • 5. 8200 & 7100 yr
     • 4. 5000 yr
     • 3. 4400 & 4100 yr
     • 2. 3200 & 2700 yr
     • 1. 1400 & 1100 yr
     • 0. 600, 400 & 200 yr (LIA)
   • COLLISIONS 0 - 1799 AD
     • AD440 A disaster wipes out the British population and erases what was then dense woodland - Gildas - 'the fire of righteous vengeance...blazed from sea to sea..once lit it did not die down..it burnt up almost the whole surface of the island..Horrible it was to see the foundation stones of towers and high walls thrown down bottom upwards..' Fire is sent from heaven whilst the fire of heaven burns. Days are as dark as night. The Isle of Axholme was suddenly overwhelmed.. vast numbers of trees were instantly burned through near the ground and fell aligned NW/SE [similar to Tunguska,1908].CW106ff, 284-5
     • AD534-5 ?mile dia meteorite or 1-2 mile across comet fragment [size of those hitting Jupiter July 1994] collides with earth [force released 1000000+ Hiroshimas/several 100,000 megatons]. Creates world-wide dust veil, especially in northern hemisphere. - tree-ring data from north America and Europe shows 15 year slower growth. Sun dims dark 1½years. Result - Dark Age deepens. Massive crop failure in British Isles Italy Mesopotamia China [70-80% Chinese pop die]. Liang dynasty Emperor orders out 500,000 pop of Imperial City Loyang. China descends into chaos over next 10 years. AD 540+ First Middle East and European substantial bubonic plague due to catastrophic conditions [source David Keys Independent 25 7 94].
     • AD1178 - 25 June An object around a mile across slams into the Moon releasing 100k megatons of power [10x global nuclear arsenal power or 24 tons of explosive for every human Lewis. eye-witness account - 'Its after sunset. The bright new moon has become visible. Suddenly its upper horn splits in 2. A lengthy flaming torch springs up, spewing out fire, hot coals, sparks. The moon writhes, throbbing like a wounded snake. This happens again and again, 12 times or more, turning the moon blackish along its whole length.'
     • AD1490 2 - 3 lb stones sized from water chestnuts to goose eggs fall like rain kill over 10,000 [or tens of thousands] Chinese. AD1492 Austria - 3 cwt stone falls with a thunderclap LEWIS 10
   • NEWS FROM NEARBY SPACE:
     Meanwhile the more researchers learn about asteroid and comet strikes on Earth, these events seem much more common than previously assumed -- which is definitely not good news. Last summer, TMQ laid out the disturbing evidence that space-rock strikes powerful enough to cause mass extinctions were not confined to the primordial mists: Something gigantic smashed into the Earth about 10,000 years ago, and there might have been a severe comet or meteorite strike as recently as the year 535. Recently researcher Dallas Abbott of the Lamont- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University has found indications that a huge comet or asteroid fell into the Indian Ocean about 4,800 years ago, causing global tsunamis.
     As recently as a decade ago, most scientists assumed that space-rock strikes powerful enough to cause general devastation happen only every million years or so. Now it looks like they are far more frequent. If a rock comparable to the one that struck the Indian Ocean 4,800 years ago struck today in Kansas, half the population of the United States might die. And as TMQ endlessly points out, what is NASA doing about this? Absolutely nothing.
     Yet if a comet or large meteor was spotted heading toward our world, NASA could do nothing. And NASA isn't even researching possible anti-space-rock technology. No agency of your government wastes taxpayers' money more cynically or systematically than the National Aeronautics and Space Agency. If a big space object strikes the Earth, sending humanity's survivors back into the Dark Ages, our descendents will consider the present Washington government history's worst collections of fools for doing nothing while there was time.
   • RECENT COSMIC IMPACTS ON EARTH Do Global Myths Reflect an Ancient Disaster?
     Scientists who model the probabilities of comet and asteroid impacts on Earth estimate that a really devastating impact--capable of killing more than a billion people (at today's standards) and wiping out civilization as we know it- -has happened only every million years or so. Archaeologist Bruce Masse thinks such impacts may have happened more frequently, or at least more recently than believed by the astrophysical community. If he's right, the danger posed by near earth objects (NEOs) is possibly greater than we've thought.
     Masse, like many of today's archaeologists, isn't based in a museum or university, but works for a government agency--in his case, Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico.
     The same government agency that covered up the Noah's Ark Find!
   • AFRICAN ICE CORE ANALYSIS REVEALS CATASTROPHIC DROUGHTS, SHRINKING ICE FIELDS AND CIVILIZATION SHIFTS
     A detailed analysis of six cores retrieved from the rapidly shrinking ice fields atop Tanzania's Mount Kilimanjaro shows that those tropical glaciers began forming about 11,700 years ago. The cores also yielded remarkable evidence of three catastrophic droughts that plagued the tropics 8,300, 5,200 and 4,000 years ago.
   • MINING TO START IN LAKE BOSUMTWI
   • ARCHIVED NEWS - October 2002 Science Magazine Volume 298, Number 5593, pp.589-593) | October 18, 2002
     Six ice cores from Kilimanjaro provide an ~11.7-thousand-year record of Holocene climate and environmental variability for eastern equatorial Africa, including three periods of abrupt climate change: ~8.3, ~5.2, and ~4 thousand years ago (ka). The latter is coincident with the "First Dark Age," the period of the greatest historically recorded drought in tropical Africa. Variable deposition of F- and Na+ during the African Humid Period suggests rapidly fluctuating lake levels between ~11.7 and 4 ka. Over the 20th century, the real extent of Kilimanjaro's ice fields has decreased ~80%, and if current climatological conditions persist, the remaining ice fields are likely to disappear between 2015 and 2020.
   • AFRICAN ICE CORE ANALYSIS REVEALS CATASTROPHIC DROUGHTS, SHRINKING ICE FIELDS, CIVILIZATION SHIFTS
     A detailed analysis of six cores retrieved from the rapidly shrinking ice fields atop Tanzania's Mount Kilimanjaro shows that those tropical glaciers began to form about 11,700 years ago. The cores also yielded remarkable evidence of three catastrophic droughts that plagued the tropics 8,300, 5,200 and 4,000 years ago.
   • N-BODY GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTIONS
     The giant planets' perturbation influence on the KB small bodies' orbits accumulates and results in a Brownian-like motion of their perihelion. Nemesis draws meteors, possibly composed of toxic compounds, from the halo. It is suspected that a large swarm of meteors collects in a resonant orbit with a period about 3:2 to that of Nemesis' period. They occasionally appear as comets in the central part of the solar system. Some of these meteors are grouped in two clusters, from which comets pass quasi-periodically 1676(+/- 110) yrs. near Earth's orbit. Another postulate (by Hoyle) is that at every six passes of one of the comet swarms a major meteor strikes Earth, i.e. on an average of every 10000 years. These strikes can cause a degree of global catastrophic weather changes and the major ones are responsible for starting (and stopping) an Ice Age.
     This Vulcan web site defines "Three-halves times their (the comet swarms) period (3353 +/- 31.7 years) defines the interval during which the Earth will be most at risk." This value is remarkably close to two times Hoyle's value 1676 years (or 3352 yrs.
   • GREEN COMET
     What makes a comet green? The atmosphere of the comet--called "the coma"-- contains cyanogen (CN), a poisonous gas, and diatomic carbon (C2). Both of these substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight.
   • IN SEARCH OF CRATER CHAINS
     As the fragments of shattered comet 73P/Schwassmann Wachmann 3 glide harmlessly past Earth this weekend in full view of backyard telescopes, onlookers can't help but wonder, what if a comet like that didn't miss, but actually hit our planet?
   • COLLISIONS FROM 1800
     Argentina - crater chain no more than a few thousand years old found. Cause a near horizontal impact/disintegration of 1000 megaton 150-300 metre stony asteroid
   • CHAOS FROM ABOVE: DID ASTEROIDS AND COMETS TURN THE TIDES OF CIVILIZATION?
     "We have summer without heat. The crops have been chilled by north winds, (and) the rain is denied." In China, "the stars were lost from view for three months." The sun dimmed, the rain failed, and snow fell in the summertime. Famine spread, and the emperor abandoned his capital amid political and economic disasters.
     New evidence, however, supports the tales of ancient scribes and identifies brief but brutal times of worldwide ecological catastrophe. The evidence is in tree rings, which clearly show several years of cold weather that stunted growth beginning in A.D. 536 and especially after A.D. 540-541. The rings show similar events that began in 1628 B.C. and 1159 B.C., and rare written documents of those times seem also to describe cataclysmic social collapse.
   • METEOR IMPACTS MAY BE GOOD FOR EARTH
   • WOOLLY MAMMOTHS: EVIDENCE OF CATASTROPHE?
     
   • COMET WORMWOOD?
   • COMETS/ASTEROIDS/BROWN DWARFS
   • WILL A COMET OR ASTEROID STRIKE THE EARTH?
   • OTHER UNORTHODOX CATASTROPHISM
   • CATASTROPHISM! Man, Myth and Mayhem in Ancient History and the Sciences
   • ARE ASTEROIDS HISTORY'S GREATEST KILLERS?
   • CATASTROPHISM
   • INDEX OF ARTICLE TITLES
   • SITES INTERNET
   • THE SIXTH EXTINCTION
   • COMETS, METEORS & MYTH: NEW EVIDENCE FOR TOPPLED CIVILIZATIONS AND BIBLICAL TALES
   • FOUR TYPES OF EARTH CATASTROPHE
   • TOP 5 COSMIC THREATS TO LIFE ON EARTH
   • NASA AND COMET IMPACT - PROPHETIC SUMMARY
   • THE ORIGINS OF DOOMSDAY ANXIETY
     After years of ignoring the most pervasive fear in human history, it is time to examine its roots dispassionately. For such a purpose, we need only call upon the appropriate rules for evaluating historical evidence.
   • (1) FIRE, FLOOD AND COMET
     The tree-ring record points to global environmental traumas between 2354 and 2345 BC, 1628 and 1623 BC, 1159 and 1141 BC, 208 and 204 BC and AD 536 and 545. Baillie argues that the tree rings are recording first the biblical flood, then the disasters that befell Egypt at the Exodus, famines at the end of King David's reign, a famine in China that ended the Ch'in (sic) dynasty, and finally, the death of King Arthur and Merlin and the onset of the Dark Ages across the whole of what is now Britain.
   • HAS NIBIRU/PLANET X BEEN SIGHTED?
     Immanuel Velikovsky demonstrated rather convincingly that there was massive evidence of both a literary and scientific nature that great catastrophic earth changes had occurred during the second millennium BC due to cometary showers and the close passage of Venus. He settled on a date of 1450 BC, but more recent scientific evidence points to the date actually being 1628 BC. There is also evidence for a disruption circa 5200 BC, 8,800 BC, 12,400 BC, 16,000 BC, 19,600
   • NO MORE SUNSETS OR SUNRISES?
     It would also blow the cover off of most of the so-called "secret societies", for this would likely be their greatest "secret" and thus also their greatest means of social control:
     That the Earth "rejuvinates" every 3,200 years (3315 years according to the Vulcan theory) or so by means of agalactic-scale, catastrophic event which humankind is largelyunable to do anything about.
   • ASTEROIDS AND COMETS Lots of links.
   • SIGNS SUPPLEMENT - METEORS, ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND NEOs Part I
     A compendium of many comets, asteroids or NEO threats.
   • SIGNS SUPPLEMENT - METEORS, ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND NEOs Part II
     A compendium of many comets, asteroids or NEO threats.
   • SIGNS SUPPLEMENT - METEORS, ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND NEOs Part III
     A compendium of many comets, asteroids or NEO threats.
   • DID ASTEROIDS AND COMETS TURN THE TIDES OF CIVILIZATION?
     Ben Rudder, an anthropologist who reviewed in New Scientist magazine a recently published book (Exodus To Arthur) by Baillie on the subject, wrote:
     "If Baillie is right, history has overlooked probably the single most important explanation for the intermittent progress of civilization. Worse, our modern confidence in benign skies is foolhardy, and our failure to appreciate the constant danger of comet "swarms" is the result of a myopic trust in a mere 200 years of "scientific" records."
     Baillie himself notes that:
     "There is, I feel, a strong case for the contention that we do not inhabit a benign planet. This planet is bombarded relatively often. If this story is correct, we have been bombarded at least three times - and probably five times - since the birth of civilization some 5,000 years ago. And each time, the world was changed."
   • COSMIC IMPACTS AND CIVILIZATION COLLAPSE @ THE LONDON CATASTROPHES MEETING O R IBID
     At some time around 2300 BC, a large number of the major civilizations of the world collapsed, simultaneously it seems. The Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia, the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the Early Bronze Age civilization in Israel, Anatolia and Greece, as well as the Indus Valley civilization in India, the Hilmand civilization in Afghanistan and the Hongshan Culture in China - the first urban civilizations in the world - all fell into ruin at more or less the same time. Why?
     A thousand years later, at around 1200 BC, many of the civilizations of the same regions again collapsed at about the same time. This time, disaster overtook the Myceneans of Greece, the Hittites of Anatolia, the Egyptian New Kingdom, Late Bronze Age Israel, and the Shang Dynasty of China.
     Another huge upheaval occurred around 540 AD, when a major natural catastrophe together with a climatic downturn devastated Europe and other parts of the world, triggering the collapse of the Roman Empire and the onset of the Dark Ages.
   • HOLOCENE (REGIONAL - EUROPE) ?SUMMARY or (3) HOLOCENE CLIMATE RECORDS IN EUROPE
     Covering the last 11,000 years, these data also showed several warm/cool oscillations that had a quasi-periodicity on the order of 1500 years.
     McDermott et al. (2001) derived a O¹⁸ record from a stalagmite discovered in a cave in southwestern Ireland with a time resolution that they say is "approximately an order of magnitude better than in the North Atlantic cores that record evidence for quasi-periodic (1475 ?500 year) ice rafting during the Holocene." These values are in relatively close agreement with the nominal 1633 quasi-periodic strike interval theoretically predicted from the 3/2 comet swarm orbit resonance period with Vulcan's 5000 year orbit. If the comet swarm's orbit does not quite reach Vulcan's orbit, the strike interval will diminish. Further, if Sol has recently (last 10,000 years or so) changed direction of its oscillation perpendicular to the galactic plane, as some suspect, the period of the comet swarms strike intervals can also be foreshortened.
   • NORTH ATLANTIC MILLENNIAL-SCALE OSCILLATIONS
     Several warm/cool oscillations with a quasi-periodicity of about 1,500 years were documented.
   • THE MEDIEVAL WARM PERIOD AND LITTLE ICE AGE IN IRELAND
     The authors derived a O¹⁸ record - with a time resolution they say is "approximately an order of magnitude better than in the North Atlantic cores that record evidence for quasi-periodic (1475 ?500 year) ice rafting during the Holocene" - from a stalagmite discovered in Crag Cave in southwestern Ireland, after which they compared this record with the O¹⁸ records from the GRIP and GISP2 ice cores from Greenland.
   • (14) HEADING TOWARDS THE NEXT ICE AGE? - 16 November 2001
     The cycle of sunlight intensity roughly follows a 1,500-year pattern, based on analysis of the past 12,000 years. The 1,500-year cycle of warming and cooling corresponds to data from tree ring studies, another way of measuring the sun's strength over time. He said the findings also agree with studies that measured the chilling of the Earth based on the advance and retreat of alpine glaciers in Europe. This 1,500-year cycle of warming and cooling corrosponds to the 1633 quasiperiodic strikes of alternate comet swarms A and B or A' and B'.
   • Comets, Meteors & Myth: New Evidence for Toppled Civilizations and Biblical Tales
     Biblical stories, apocalyptic visions, ancient art and scientific data all seem to intersect at around 2350 B.C., when one or more catastrophic events wiped out several advanced societies in Europe, Asia and Africa.
     The Epic of Gilgamesh describes the fire, brimstone and flood of possibly mythical events. Omens predicting the Akkadian collapse preserve a record that "many stars were falling from the sky." The "Curse of Akkad," dated to about 2200 B.C., speaks of "flaming potsherds raining from the sky."
     Roughly 2000 years later, the Jewish astronomer Rabbi bar Nachmani created what could be considered the first impact theory: That Noah's Flood was triggered by two "stars" that fell from the sky. "When God decided to bring about the Flood, He took two stars from Khima, threw them on Earth, and brought about the Flood."
     Another thread was woven into the tale when, in 1650, the Irish Archbishop James Ussher mapped out the chronology of the Bible -- a feat that included stringing together all the "begats" to count generations -- and put Noah's great flood at 2349 B.C.
   • (3) CIVILISATION COLLAPSE, CLIMATIC DOWNTURNS & SOLAR FLUCTUATION
     From both scientific (lake sediments, ice cores, dust layers, etc) and historical (archaeology, history) evidence, I have found that quasiperiodical changes of about 1200/1300 years,which could be considered the 7th order fundamental harmonics of sunspot cycles. I am completing a manuscript, entitled The Curse: A Theory of History, These changes of about 1200/1300 years cycle corrosponds to the 1633 quasiperiodic strikes of alternate comet swarms A and B or A' and B'.
   • (3) HOW MANY COSMIC IMPACTS HAVE PUNCTUATED EARTH DURING THE LAST 10,000 YEARS?
     Whilst a dozen Holocene impact craters have been confirmed to date, the majority of impacts that occurred during the last 10,000 years have not been detected yet.
   • B-1: SOME MAJOR IMPACTS OF ASTEROIDS AND COMETS
   • THE RISE OF ASTRONOMICAL CATASTROPHISM After being ridiculed for well over a century, astronomical catastrophism is now (1984) coming into its own.
   • NOW, IT'S COMET SHOWERS THAT DID IT The nature of astronomical catastrophism is still up in the air! But, a mere decade ago such a paper would have to look far for a journal to publish it.
   • A CAUSE AND SOLUTION FOR FERMI'S PARADOX See section 5.Impacts And Extinctions
   • FEKRI HASSAN: Cores of mud from the ocean floor revealed regular periods of extreme cold - mini ice ages - in Europe every 1,500 years, and lasting 200 years. This web site predicts the quasi-periodic theoretical long term (two) comet swarms revisit interval to be 1500 - 1700 years.
   • RESEARCHERS MAKING WAVES AT LOS ALAMOS Latest Space Fear: Asteroid-Spawned Tsunamis - Reuters 07-JAN-98. First they killed the dinosaurs. Now This!
     If an asteroid with a diameter of 600 feet (200 meters) or more splashed down in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, it would set off a tsunami, a huge sea wave. A 3 miles (4.8 km) diameter, it would flood the upper east coast of the United States and drown the coasts of France and Portugal.
     The tsunami's waves would move outward from the impact site at about the speed of jet aircraft. This has never happened in the course of recorded history, Hills said; on the other hand, the computer model indicates the likelihood of it occurring is about once every 3,000 to 5,000 years. These values are multiples of the 1,500 to 1,700 year comet swarms quasi-periodic revisit interval.
   • A REVIEW OF EXODUS TO ARTHUR; CATASTROPHIC ENCOUNTERS WITH COMETS
     The five harshest environmental events showing in the dendrochronology records are events at 2354-2345 BC, 1628-1623 BC, 1159-1141 BC, 208-204 BC, and 536-545 AD.
   • THE EARTH STRUCK BY COMETS MANY TIMES.
     The so-called Glacial Age really represents a collision of the earth with one of these wandering luminaries of space, the following question can occur, Was this the first and only occasion, during all the thousands of millions of years that our planet has been revolving on its axis and circling around the sun, that such a catastrophe has occurred? The answer must be in the negative.
   • Extinction and Survival
   • THE CASE FOR CELESTIAL CATASTROPHISM
   • IMPACT EVENT
   • IMPACT EVENT - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
   • PROJEKT ZUR KOLLISIONSGEFAHRVON "EARTH- CROSSING- ASTEROIDS" MIT UNSEREM PLANETEN. or PROJECT TO THE COLLISION DANGER OF "EARTH CROSSING ASTEROIDS" WITH OUR PLANET GENESIS OF EDEN DIVERSITY ENCYCLOPEDIA
     Encounters with comets and asteroids a kilometer or so in diameter, sufficient to destroy a country the size of India, occur about once in a million years.
2. EARTH IMPACT SIMULATIONS
   • THE MAP OF DOOM | APOCALYPSES RANKED - Jul 2, 2020 This year was the first experience we’ve had of a global disaster affecting every single person on Earth. And also how unprepared society was to deal with it, despite plenty of people giving warnings that this was going to happen at some stage.
     But in the midst of all the doom I started to wonder, what other things could threaten humanity, that we are not thinking about? So I made the Map of Doom to list all the threats to humanity in one place.
     But just finding them all is not enough. I wanted to find a way of comparing the risks of all of these disaster scenarios. So this video follows my attempt at doing that, and I think I’ve hit on a great way to visually compare all these dangers, which I haven’t seen anyone do before, so hopefully by the end of the video you’ll have a better idea about what the biggest threats are, and how they compare to this pandemic.
   • * COULD WE SURVIVE AN ASTEROID COLLISION? - Aug 22, 2020
     This documentary takes a look at the present efforts and problems associated with the location and observation of possible life-threatening comets and asteroids, as well as plans to avoid collisions.
   • LIFE ON EARTH AFTER MASSIVE COMET IMPACT - Apr 28, 2020
     posted Oct 3, 2020 - email temporarily stopped working.
     Similiar to Oct 27, 2017 post below.
   • IMPACT: EARTH! (Technical write-up)
     IMPACTEARTH! program (Can use Safari Browser)
   • WHY DID THE METEORS AT CHELYABINSK AND THE TUNGUSKA EVENT EXPLODE? - Mar. 27, 2019
     When asking why objects like the Chelyabinsk Meteor or the meteor in the Tunguska Event explode, we should remember that when either a comet or asteroid hit the Earth’s atmosphere, its moving tens of thousands of miles an hour. In a vacuum, there’s nothing to create drag forces that slow it down, but as soon as it hits our atmosphere, it has a lot of air that it is suddenly displacing.
     
     This generates air temperatures around the meteor of many thousands of degrees Fahrenheit—in the case of the Tunguska Event meteor as hot as 44,500 degrees Fahrenheit—as the compression of air beneath the windward side of the meteor builds up heat through friction.
     Once the meteor is inside the Earth's atmosphere, all of that heat and pressure on one side of the meteor moving so quickly through the atmosphere creates a huge pressure differential between the highly compressed, blindingly hot windward side of the meteor and the backside directly opposite it, facing back out towards what is essentially a vacuum, as the displaced air hasn’t had time to fill in the space behind it.
   • * NOT GOOD: IF AN ASTEROID HEADS FOR EARTH AND WE TRY... - March 17, 2019
     Asteroids that are 'blown up' tend to reform due to gravatation attractions of the fragments.
   • * THE SUPER COMET: ON A STRANGE PLANET (2/2) Full Documentary - Oct 27, 2017
   • THE SUPER COMET: THE IMPACT (1/2) Full Documentary - Oct 20, 2017
     World Wide Physical Effects: (Including Hawaii) Start: 27:00: EMP: 30:00- 31:00, Debris reaches Hawaii 36 min after impact: 31:00 : plasma radiation 12 hours after impact; 37:00 to 40:00, Up to 600 to 700 deg. above normal, Hawaii above 100 deg. C (212 F): 45:50 min Older model car survives EMP (added June 2021)
     Mesosphere The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. Meteors burn up in this layer
     For h miles above the Earth's surface near the equator (Earth's radius R = 3963 miles. One degree latitude = 68.7 miles)
     Straight line distance to the horizon, x:
     x = [h(2R+h)]^1/2 = [(53) (7979)}^1/2 = 650 miles)
     The 'Great Circle' distance = 68.7 cos^-1(3963/4016) = (68.7)(9.321^o) = 640 miles
     Scaling the 5.3 mile diameter impacting comet fragment to the 8 mile comet fragment that killed the dinosaurs (5.3/8.0)³ = 0.29
     The temperature rise in Hawaii due to radiant heat from ejected debris (becoming meteors) from the Super Comet impact burning up in the Mesosphere is 29^o C (or 54^o F).
     Note, Hawaii is 5800 miles from the Puerto Rician impact point, so the direct blast is unlikely to reach there, but thermal radiation from the ejecta raining back down on Earth is likely to continue for many hours (days). Hawaii is anticipated to be about 280 miles north of the impact point projected up into the non rotating Mesosphere and will pass north of this point daily.
   • ATMOSPHERIC HEATING FROM METEORITE IMPACT - Jul 24, 2017
     10199 Chariklo (a.k.a. 1997 CU26) Diameter: 248 ± 18 km (334 x 266 x 172 km)
     Density: 3.493 g/cm³
     Mass: 2.23E+20 kg
     Angle of Impact: 45^o, from east to west
     mpact Velocity: 23 km/s (51,450 mph)
     Location of Impact: 14.032281^oN, -158.039055^oW
     Water Depth: 2,076 meters (6,810 feet)
     While "Impact Earth" provided valuable information, it did not answer a question I had concerning atmospheric heating. The thermal radiation from the resulting fireball would be sufficient to ignite all the forests around the Pacific Coast, but just how far would 7.38 x 10²⁷ Joules of energy spread beyond the horizon?
     Note:
     A few rough estimates: If the whole surface of Earth is heated to 5300 K, it emits the full impact energy within 4 days. Assuming no process adds significant energy to the impact energy, it can't stay that hot for longer than 4 days.
   • THE WAYS YOU NEVER KNEW AN ASTEROID STRIKE CAN KILL YOU - July 4, 2017
     Well, "breeze" might be putting it lightly. A paper published in Geophysical Research Letters used the computer simulations of 50,000 virtual asteroids to rank the dangers they posed to humanity and what they found was that wind was by far the single greatest threat you and I. The rapidly-moving air would radiate out in a wave and, depending on whether the asteroid struck the ground or detonated in the atmosphere, that wind could absolutely devastate everything in its path, slicing structures off their foundations and killing untold numbers in the process.
     Of course, even though the wind is the single biggest danger, the heat of a potential blast, resulting tsunami (if the asteroid impacted an ocean), and the pressure created by the shockwave (which can rupture human organs) are pretty terrible, too. In short, there's very little upside to being hit with a giant rock from outer space, so humanity should probably do everything in its power to keep such a thing from happening.
   • NASA RESEARCHERS USE 3D MODELING SOFTWARE TO RUN ASTEROID IMPACT SCENARIOS, GIVE FIRST RESPONDERS A WAY TO IDENTIFY AND DEFEND AGAINST ASTEROID STRIKES - Jul 1, 2017
   • ANIMATION REVEALS WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF AN ASTEROID HIT THE OCEAN - Dec 23, 2016
   • EARTH IMPACT EFFECTS PROGRAM
     Robert Marcus, H. Jay Melosh, and Gareth Collins
     Welcome to the Earth Impact Effects Program: an easy-to-use, interactive web site for estimating the regional environmental consequences of an impact on Earth. This program will estimate the ejecta distribution, ground shaking, atmospheric blast wave, and thermal effects of an impact as well as the size of the crater produced.
   • DISTANCE BETWEEN CITIES calculator
   • EARTH IMPACT EFFECTS PROGRAM
     Suggested assumptions: 3 mile - Kuiper Belt object; 45 degree angle; density of 1700 kg/m³ (ice and metal mixture); impact velocity 72 km/sec (a long period comet); target sedimentary rock; Possible impact location - 56N, 110 W (compute your desired distance from impact).
   • WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF A GIANT TSUNAMI HIT FLORIDA? - Freedom Outpost? - March 29, 2014
   • COMET AND ASTEROID THREAT IMPACT ANALYSIS - James A. Marusek* (Impact, Bloomfield, Indiana, 47424) 2013+ AD
     [Abstract]
     A comet or asteroid impact event can release tremendous destruction which has been compared to the damage released from a very large thermonuclear explosion. This is a fairly useful analogy. The nuclear explosion effects are a well-studied science that can be directly applied to the study of impacts. This paper provides formulas for converting impactor size, speed and density into impact energy (megatons of TNT equivalent). The level of impact energy is then applied to nuclear weapon effects tables to provide estimates for the magnitude of damage as a function of distance from point-of-impact. As a means of validating the threat model, the analysis of damage effects integrates information gleaned from eyewitness accounts of impacts within recorded history and from geological information from early impact events. Impact effects are broken down into five main areas: shock wave, thermal radiation, debris and aerosols, electromagnetic effects and secondary effects. The shock wave section describes the atmospheric blast wave, ground shock and the water compression wave (tsunami). The thermal radiation section describes the flash and fireball. As the asteroid or comet strikes the Earth, the tremendous heat produced by the impact will melt and vaporize rock. The blast will also eject debris into the upper atmosphere and into space in a ballistic trajectory. The debris and aerosols section will cover this effect. The electromagnetic effects section describes the electromagnetic pulse, ionizing radiation and electrophonic bursters. The final section describes secondary effects including mass fires (conflagration and global firestorms); secondary earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, & lava flows; dust & impact winter; gas evolution and acid rain (large volumes of gases can be released by an impact including nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride – some are hazardous or poisonous); upper atmospheric effects (such as expansion of the stratospheric envelope); oxygen depletion; magnetic pole reversals; energetic weather conditions (such as black rain); starvation and plagues. These effects are discussed in detail and an analytical assessment is provided. The following impact scenario is included as an Appendix within the paper. An asteroid strikes the Earth without warning. The asteroid 5.8 kilometers in diameter crashes into the Atlantic Ocean at Longitude 72^o 49' West, Latitude 28^o 0' North. The asteroid is traveling at a velocity of 20 km/s and has a density of 2.0 g/cm3. The asteroid is spherical in shape. It is not a binary asteroid. The impact occurs at 9:45 PM Eastern Time in the middle of June. The asteroid collides with Earth nearly head-on (2 degrees from true vertical) in a slight East to West direction. The scenario is assessed at the following locations: Bermuda; Washington D.C.; New York City, New York; small town outside Indianapolis, Indiana; Chicago, Illinois; Dallas, Texas; Lincoln, Nebraska; and Los Angeles, California. This scenario is beneficial to the discussion because it portrays the interconnectivity and timing of hazards and provides a methodology for describing the effects. An accurate assessment of impact hazards is absolutely critical in developing comprehensive disaster preparedness planning.
     IV. Debris & Aerosols
     The debris from a large impactor will blot out the sun, the moon and the stars and turn the Earth dark as night. The vaporized rock cloud will rapidly cool and condense in space and form droplets that solidify into spherules (tiny glass beads about 1 mm in diameter). Over the next several hours and days, much of this debris will rain back down over the entire surface of the Earth. This returning debris will be fairly light and will be slowed significantly as it falls through the atmosphere and should not present a significant secondary impact hazard.
     Appendix Impact Scenario
     • The impact could reactivate the Yellowstone volcano. This is the largest volcano in North America.
     • The impact will stress the Reelfoot Rift producing several earthquakes along the New Madrid fault line. This large earthquake fault runs down the center of the U.S. It has the capacity of generating significant earthquake damage from Chicago to New Orleans.
     • The impact will produce large earthquakes in the San Andreas Fault system in California.
     • I feel the entire world will be dark within one hour after a large impact. The impact debris flung high into the stratosphere will cause this darkness. It will take several days for the majority of this debris to fall back to Earth’s surface. I believe at about the third day after impact, some light will start to get through.
     I. Starvation and Plagues A massive asteroid/comet impact can produce a global catastrophe. Unfavorable weather conditions following a large impact will retard food production, processing and distribution. Acid rain will also contribute by destroying crops. The infrastructure will take a big hit from a large impact. Broken transportation lines will inhibit transport of grains to processing centers and then to population centers. Other damaged infrastructure (government, finance, communications, energy) will place most recovery efforts into shambles. The inability to quickly recover from the damaged infrastructure will lead to starvation and famines
     VII. Conclusion
     The great majority of asteroid and comet impacts will produce only limited regions of great devastation. The effects from these impacts can be quantitatively assessed by comparing the effects from equivalent air and/or surface nuclear explosion. In my assessment, global mass extinction events are extremely rare and are caused by deep impactors, those that penetrate the Earth’s crust. In general, these massive impacts are caused by inward falling comets from the Oort Cloud. The energy released by a deep impactor is split between surface effects and interior effects. The surface effects can be modeled a surface nuclear burst. The interior effects can be modeled by an equivalent underground nuclear explosions, the main component is a directional ground shock. A deep impact produces two zones of destruction: one at the point- of-impact and the other on the opposite side of the globe. The destruction at the point-of-impact produces a regional area of great devastation that wrecks havoc for several days. The shock wave from the impacts traveled through the Earth fracturing the Earth’s crust on the opposite side of the planet, producing a jumbled debris field and triggering massive mantle plume volcanism. The area of devastation on the opposite side of the Earth is significantly greater and the devastation is long-term extending thousands of years. It is this component that produces global devastation by releasing of massive quantities of volcanic magma, which in turn generates acidic and poisonous gases. The gases combine with moisture to form acids that are primarily responsible for extinguishing life across the entire planet. The gas generation is also responsible for the drawdown of oxygen levels below minimally acceptable levels. These deep impacts are not random. Rather they occur with regularity in geological time.
   • NEW IMPACT MODEL IMPROVES METEORITE FALLOUT PREDICTIONSBY MERRYL AZRIEL ON NOVEMBER 14, 2011 IN METEORITES2 - Nov 14, 2011
   • NEW MODEL PREDICTS FALLOUT FROM BIG METEORITE STRIKE - 03 November 2011
     "After a meteorite impact, seismic waves travel outward across the Earth's surface like after a stone is thrown in water," research leader Matthias Meschede of the University of Munich said in a statement. "For the Earth, these calculations are usually made using a smooth, perfect sphere model, but we found that the surface features of a planet or a moon have a huge effect on the aftershock a large meteorite will have, so it's extremely important to take those into account."
   • INDIA AT HIGH RISK OF BEING WIPED OUT BY AN ASTEROID
     Bangalore: India is among one of the 10 countries that are most at risk of being wiped out by an asteroid. China and the United States also appear in the list. NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer has made possible one of the best assessments of our solar system's population of potentially hazardous asteroids (PHA).
     The explorer sampled 107 'potentially hazardous' asteroids, to determine how many are out there - and the figure is a frightening 47,000! PHAs have orbits closest to that of Earth’s and are big enough to withstand passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
   • ASTEROID HIT WILL BE CATASTROPHIC FOR INDIA, US, CHINA - 30th June, 2011
     If an asteroid hits India, US or China, these countries will suffer a catastrophic loss of lives and be crippled beyond the possibility of any recovery, scientists have said.
     Countries that will be worst affected in the event of a strike also include Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Italy, Britain, Brazil and Nigeria, according to the Daily Mail.
     Even smaller countries like Sweden are in grave danger because of damage to their infrastructure.
   • NEW TOOL TO HELP RESPONSE TO THREAT OF ASTEROID COLLISION - 12 May 2011
   • NEOMiSS: A NEAR-EARTH OBJECT DECISION SUPPORT TOOL
     The Near Earth Object Mitigation Support System (NEOMiSS) is a decision support tool, enabling scientists, emergency planners and policy-makers to understand and assess the human vulnerability and risks due to a potential NEO collision with the Earth. NEOMiSS extends the functionality offered by the NEOSim and NEOimpactor tools, developed at the University of Southampton. It provides an improved human casualty estimator using vulnerability models of multiple NEO impact hazards. In addition, it also offers an evacuation simulator for prediction of an areas ability to evacuate, which is used for modifying the human vulnerability. These tools enable NEOMiSS to deliver reliable predictions of the human casualties arising from impact hazards along a NEO risk corridor. As such, decisions affecting NEO deflection campaigns (which modify the risk corridor) can be taken in the context of the human consequences.
   • SOFTWARE COULD AID NEAR-EARTH OBJECT COLLISION RESPONSE - 13 May 2011
   • WHAT IF AN ASTEROID CRASHES NEAR YOU? - 6 May 2011.
   • SOFTWARE COULD AID NEAR-EARTH OBJECT COLLISION RESPONSE - 13 May 2011
   • THE TUNGUSKA IMPACT EVENT AND BEYOND - February 2009
   • WHEN HEAVEN AND EARTH COLLIDE - 8 Nov 2008 "Do you want to know how much warning we would have of a country or city- killing asteroid?" asks Tate. "About four seconds. A major impact is just as likely to happen before the end of this conversation as 10,000 years from now."
   • COMET AND ASTEROID THREAT IMPACT ANALYSIS - 2004
     
     • A large ocean impact could break through the Earth’s crust. This would expose the ocean to the molten lava beneath. The lava could flow up forming a new large volcanic island. The volcano would spew significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
     • The Hawaiian Islands were formed from massive volcanoes. If the water in the ocean were removed, the Hawaiian Islands would be the tallest mountains on the surface of the Earth, over 5 miles (8 km) high. Geological evidence has shown that over time, individual islands will break apart through large landslides. Great chunks, the size of New York City, can break off and tumble 5 miles to the bottom of the ocean floor. When this landslide occurs, it displaces a large volume of water. This would create a large tsunami that would affect the entire Pacific Rim. A large crack with several feet of separation has already formed in the Big Island of Hawaii. The Primary Ground Shock from a large ocean impact(even though it occurred on the other side of the United States) would travel though the molten mantel and could trigger this landslide resulting in a tsunami that would devastate the cities along the west coast of the United States, including Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco along with coastal areas of Japan, Asia, and Australia.
     • The impact could trigger a landslide and volcanic activity on the Teide volcano on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. This is the 3rd largest volcano on Earth. If the asteroid impact triggered this landslide, the result would be a tsunami that will primarily affect Northwestern Africa and Western Europe. The volcano would erupt and send significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
     • The impact could reactivate the Yellowstone volcano. This is the largest volcano in North America.
     • The impact could produce large earthquakes in the Reelfoot Rift that is commonly called the New Madrid fault. This is a large earthquake fault line that runs down the center of the U.S. A large earthquake in this fault would generate significant earthquake damage from Chicago to New Orleans.
     • Likewise the impact could produce large earthquakes in the San Andreas Fault system in California.
     B. Earthquakes, Landslides, Volcanoes & Lava Flows
     A large impact may trigger a variety of secondary effects including earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes and lava flows. These secondary effects would be triggered by the Primary Impact Ground Shock. The following are examples of secondary effects that might follow a large asteroid or comet impact in the Atlantic Ocean.
     • A large ocean impact could break through the Earth’s crust. This would expose the ocean to the molten lava beneath. The lava could flow up forming a new large volcanic island. The volcano would spew significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
     • The Hawaiian Islands were formed from massive volcanoes. If the water in the ocean were removed, the Hawaiian Islands would be the tallest mountains on the surface of the Earth, over 5 miles (8 km) high. Geological evidence has shown that over time, individual islands will break apart through large landslides. Great chunks, the size of New York City, can break off and tumble 5 miles to the bottom of the ocean floor. When this landslide occurs, it displaces a large volume of water. This would create a large tsunami that would affect the entire Pacific Rim. A large crack with several feet of separation has already formed in the Big Island of Hawaii. The Primary Ground Shock from a large ocean impact (even though it occurred on the other side of the United States) would travel though the molten mantel and could trigger this landslide resulting in a tsunami that would devastate the cities along the west coast of the United States, including Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco along with coastal areas of Japan, Asia, and Australia.
     • The impact could trigger a landslide and volcanic activity on the Teide volcano on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. This is the 3rd largest volcano on Earth. If the asteroid impact triggered this landslide, the result would be a tsunami that will primarily affect Northwestern Africa and Western Europe. The volcano would erupt and send significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
     • The impact could reactivate the Yellowstone volcano. This is the largest volcano in North America.
     • The impact could produce large earthquakes in the Reelfoot Rift that is commonly called the New Madrid fault. This is a large earthquake fault line that runs down the center of the U.S. A large earthquake in this fault would generate significant earthquake damage from Chicago to New Orleans.
     • Likewise the impact could produce large earthquakes in the San Andreas Fault system in California.
     Appendix
     Impact Scenario
     An asteroid strikes the Earth without warning. The asteroid 3.6 miles (5.8 km) in diameter crashes into the Atlantic Ocean at Longitude 72^o 49' West, Latitude 28^o 0' North. The asteroid is traveling at a velocity of 20 km/s, has a density of 2.0 g/cm³
     Secondary Effects:
     • There is a crack that has formed on the Big Island of Hawaii. The gap is presently a few feet wide. If you remove the water from the ocean, Hawaii would be one of the tallest mountains in the world, over 5 miles (8 km) high. The islands were created from underwater volcanoes. In time as the islands age, they will fracture producing a large landslide. Part of the Big Island will break away and fall to the bottom of the ocean. This landslide will displace many square miles of water and produce a very large tsunami. This tsunami will threaten coastal areas of the West Coast of the U.S., Japan, Asia, and Australia. Within this scenario, the asteroid impact will trigger this landslide.
     • The impact will also wake up the Yellowstone volcano, one of the largest volcanoes in North America. LI> The impact will stress the Reelfoot Rift producing several earthquakes along the New Madrid fault line. This large earthquake fault runs down the center of the U.S. It has the capacity of generating significant earthquake damage from Chicago to New Orleans.
     • The impact will produce large earthquakes in the San Andreas Fault system in California.
     .
   • OTHER ARTICLES RELATED TO 'THE BIG CRACK' OR THE HILINA SLUMP (BUT NOT RELATED TO A CELESTIAL IMPACTS)
     • THE HILINA SLUMP A.K.A. "THE BIG CRACK" - Jan/Feb 1998
       The Hilina Slump can move much faster. At 4:4 8 AM, November 29, 1975, a 37-mile-wide section suddenly dropped 11 1/2 feet and slid seaward 26 feet. The result was a magnitude-7.2 quake and a 48-foot-high tsunami. This was a minor of the slump. If the entire 4,760-cubic-mile block decided to break off, it would probably create a magnitude-9 quake and a tsunami 1,000-feet high. All the coast-hugging cities of the Hawaiian Islands would be swept away. And LOOK OUT Australia, Japan, and California.
     • MEGA TSUNAMI THE HILINA SLUMP - Jul, 3 2011
       Worse waves are possible in very near future. A 4,760 cubic mile chunk of Hawaii is breaking away at the rate of 4 inches per year. This is the Hilina Slump, and it is the "the most rapidly moving tract of ground on Earth for its size." The Hilina Slump can and will move much faster. At 4:48 AM, November 29, 1975, a 37-mile-wide section suddenly dropped 11½ feet and slid seaward 26 feet. The result was a magnitude-7.2 quake and a 48-foot-high tsunami. This was a just speck of the slump. If the entire 4,760-cubic-mile block decided to break off, it would most likely create a magnitude-9 quake and a tsunami 1,000-feet high. All the coast-hugging cities of the Hawaiian Islands would be destroyed.
     • MEGA TSUNAMI: Hawaii.mov - Mar 30, 2012
       This movie shows a physics-based computer simulation of a Kilauea Flank Collapse landslide and Mega Tsunami. Local wave heights exceed 300 meters. Such events happen in Hawaii about every 200,000 years.
     • KILAUEA VOLCANO THREATENS ENTIRE PACIFIC RIM - Dec 20, 2013
       And according to Wikipedia, The Hilina Slump is a 5,000 cubic mile (20,000 km³) chunk of the big island of Hawaii on the south flank of the Kilauea volcano. Between 1990 and 1993, GPS measurements showed a southward displacement up to approximately 10 cm per year.[1] The slump has the potential of breaking away at a faster pace in the form of an underwater landslide. If the entire Hilina Slump did slide into the ocean at once, it could cause an earthquake in excess of a 9 in magnitude and a megatsunami. Previous megatsunamis in Hawaii 110,000 years ago caused by similar geological phenomena created waves 1,600 feet (500 m) tall.[2] Were such a megatsunami to occur again, it would threaten the entire Pacific Rim.
     • FIVE GLOBAL CATASTROPHES THAT COULD HAPPEN TOMORROW - Oct 1, 2015
       2. The Hilina Slump
       Forget the widely-publicized megatsunami threat that has been attributed to the potential collapse of the Cumbre Vieja volcano on La Palma in the Canary Islands. A far greater danger is posed by the possible collapse of the southern portion of Kilauea Volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii. Termed the Hilina Slump, this could drop 12,000 cubic kilometres of rock into the Pacific Ocean, generating a megatsunami that would propagate around the Pacific Ocean and reach the western seaboard of North America in a matter of hours, inundating coastal communities.
       There is evidence that a similar collapse at nearby Mauna Loa around 120,000 years ago generated a tsunami with a run-up height of over 400m. Even as recently as 1975, movement of the Hilina Slump generated a smaller, yet destructive tsunami that reached California. Given that the slump is continually active and moving, it might only take a jolt from an earthquake in the tectonically active state to set in motion this catastrophic chain of events.
     • 2018 HILINA SLUMP COLLAPSE | Hypothetical Tsunamis Wikia - 2018
       Event
       A large localized tsunami hit the Puna coast within 15 minutes, devastating the shoreline. The tsunami swept around the island hitting the Kona coast. Substantial wave heights were recorded in Kona causing flooding of the main Alii'i drive, as well as waves that passed the tsunami warning signs.
       Honolulu faced millions of dollars in damage although wave heights were relatively lower, and the tsunami warning signs were able to save many lives.
       West Coast cities faced significant damage. Major west coast cities such as parts of Los Angeles and San Diego.
     • KILAUEA’S SOUTH FLANK SLUMPING IS ‘NORMAL’ – I’M SO MUCH RELIEVED NOW… - 16 May 2018
       From the “How not to console” department…
       In order to assure folks that the area of the Leilani Eruption of Kilauea is NOT going to slide off into the sea, the USGS explains that it is only “slumping” slowly into the ocean in a more normal way and that won’t cause a tsunami at all.
     • VIDENCE GROWS THAT HAWAII VOLCANIC ERUPTION CAUSED BY PUNA GEOTHERMAL VENTURE - May 27, 2018
       It is also important to mention that this is the second time in 2018 that Hawaii was targeted by the Deep State/global elites for some kind of catastrophic event that would economically and militarily weaken the United States. On January 13, 2018, a ballistic nuclear missile was sent by a secret CIA linked Navy, called the “Dark Fleet”, in a false flag attack that was meant to embroil the United States in a catastrophic nuclear war.
       In a January 20 article, I provided documents and references showing how the CIA has built its own secret fleet that conducts covert operations on behalf of the Deep State/global elite. Thankfully, that plan failed due to the intervention of a U.S. Air Force based secret space program that shot down the missile, as I discussed another article.
       Since 2004, I have lived on Hawaii’s Big Island. On May 1, 2018, I moved from the lower Puna region just as the earthquakes intensified, to the Kona side of the Big Island. It boggles the mind that such a beautiful part of our planet is being repeatedly targeted by the global elite for catastrophes that will facilitate their New World Order plans.
     • THE 11 MEGA DISASTERS THAT COULD KILL US ALL AT ANY MOMENT FROM SUPERVOLCANOES TO A MEGA HURRICANE - Jan 20, 2020 According to The Independent, "there is evidence that a similar collapse at nearby Mauna Loa around 120,000 years ago generated a tsunami with a run-up height of over 400 metres.
       "Even as recently as 1975, movement of the Hilina Slump generated a smaller, yet destructive tsunami that reached California."
     • HAL TURNER RADIO SHOW - M4.6 QUAKE SEVERELY LOOSENS "HILINA SLUMP" - IF LAND SLIDES, PACIFIC-WIDE TSUNAMI! - Jul 3, 2020
       At 5:20 AM eastern US time today (Friday), the big island of Hawaii experienced a Magnitude 4.6 Earthquake, DIRECTLY next to the ominous "Hilina Slump." The quake took place at a very shallow depth of only 6km, and Geologists in Hawaii are already frantically reporting "very large new cracks in the Hilina Slump."
     • Hawaii, USA: Joining the Tsunami Ready global community - Mar 10, 2021
       In The 1990's, Waikiki Introduced A Policy That Encouraged Vertical Evacuation Into Tall Buildings
       The Tsunami Ready program is implemented as a voluntary, performance- based community recognition program that promotes an understanding of the concept of readiness as an active collaboration among national and local warning and emergency management agencies and government authorities, scientists, community leaders, and the public.
       Tsunami Visualization - May 10, 2011
       In 2006 Animation Research Ltd provided visualizations of several 'Mega Disasters' for National Geographic Television's 6 part tv series of the same name. In TSUNAMI, we generated a mega disaster scenario for Mauna Loa volcano causing a tsunami that devastates Honolulu.
   • COMET AND ASTEROID THREAT IMPACT ANALYSIS James A. Marusek - 14 July 2001, 16 November 2004 Rev 50
     The great majority of asteroid and comet impacts produce only regional areas of devastation. They are not global killers. Our planet is huge and can absorb a fairly big hit. There is an exception. The Earth has several times in the past experienced massive impact events that have extinguished most of the life from the planet. In general, these massive impacts have been caused by inward falling comets from the Oort Cloud. In these rare cases, huge comet fragments penetrated the Earth’s crust. The shock wave from these deep impacts traveled through the Earth and produced a very large zone of devastation on the opposite side of the globe. Vast quantities of magma were released, which result in global damage and a major extinction event. This process is described in greater detail in Reference 1. The deep impacts (impacts that penetrate the Earth’s crust) are not random. Rather they occur quite regularly in geological time. The next deep impact event will occur in approximately 80 million years.
   • APOCALYPSE THEN: HOW COMET ENDED ROMAN EMPIRE - 9 September 2000
   • DISCLOSURE AND COMETS - 30 Sep 2010
     Mike Baillie once asked for a show of hands at an archaeological conference, when he asked the audience if they were aware of the impact phenomenon and its probable role in killing off the dinosaurs and its relevance to human history. Only 10% raised their hands.
     Sandia's team of scientists were able to create virtual-reality simulations of a catastrophic impact. This project was led by David Crawford and Arthurine Breckenridge. They modeled the impact of a 1.4 kilometer-diameter comet, weighing approximately 1,000 million tons and traveling at 60 km/s as it strikes the Atlantic Ocean 25 miles south of New York. This work was done with the most advanced computation equipment on the planet. This was no computer game. Sandia's team also modeled the impacts of Shoemaker-Levy on Jupiter with stunning accuracy.
     The conclusions were horrifying.
     The comet impacts with the ocean and instantly vaporizes 300 to 500 cubic kilometers of water forming a temporary cavity in the ocean. The equivalent of 300 gigatons of TNT energy is released at that instant - ten times the explosive power of all the world's nuclear weapons together. The heat generated is in excess of 5,000 degrees Celsius.
     Five seconds after the comet hits the ocean, a tremendous impact plume composed of superheated debris, earth and water, smothers most of Long Island.
     Eleven seconds after impact, the New York coastline is swept by superheated steam and ejected debris. At the same time, a large proportion of the ejected debris has now penetrated Earth's atmosphere in sub-orbital trajectories. Molten ejecta begins to fall on New York and the heat generated by the impact has begun to incinerate everything in its path - entire cities and forests are turned into cinders almost instantly.
     Finally, the global debris cloud rapidly lowers temperatures worldwide and this is followed by the moisture evaporated into the atmosphere starting to fall as snow. David Crawford, leader of the Sandia team, said:
   • Jacob Schwartz - COMET IMPACT!
     What would happen if people around the world realized we may all die in three months. . . Small enclaves of humans, plants and animals may survive a comet impact, but civilization won't. . . . Any dinosaur you ask will tell you Earth is a dangerous place! . . . The common expectation is that the neighborhood of time called 2000 will bring a new era of destruction, enlightenment, both or neither.
   • UNITEL- January 2004
     Thou shalt be concerned about the life in the hereafter, if you don't learn about such things as the changing earth's magnetic field, possible asteroid collisions, and solar output variability, and new medical technologies.
   • UNDETECTABLE ASTEROIDS COULD DESTROY CITIES - EXPERTS
   • ASTEROID IMPACT SIMULATION WOULD DEVASTATE WISE COUNTY
   • CATCH THE WAVE: ASTEROID-DRIVEN TSUNAMI IN U.S. EASTERN SEABOARD'S FUTURE
     Researchers in California have developed a computer simulation depicting the ocean impact of the asteroid 1950 DA, a half-mile wide (1.1-kilometer) space rock that swings uncomfortably close to Earth in 2880.
   • MASSIVE TSUNAMI SWEEPS ATLANTIC COAST IN ASTEROID IMPACT SCENARIO FOR MARCH 16, 2880
     or . MASSIVE TSUNAMI SWEEPS ATLANTIC COAST IN ASTEROID IMPACT SCENARIO FOR MARCH 16, 2880
     March 16, 2880, is the day the asteroid known as 1950 DA, a huge rock two-thirds of a mile in diameter, is due to swing so close to Earth it could slam into the Atlantic Ocean at 38,000 miles per hour.
   • (5) TSUNAMI GENERATED BY ASTEROID IMPACTS or TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL SIMULATIONS OF ASTEROID OCEAN IMPACTS Galen Gisler, Robert Weaver, Charles Mader Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos, NM, USA Tsunamis up to a kilometer in initial height are generated by the collapse of the vertical jet. These waves are initially complex in form, and interact strongly with shocks propagating through the water and the crust. The tsunami waves are followed out to 100 km from the point of impact.
   • SOLAR SYSTEM COLLISIONS Calculate the affects of your own meteorite strike.
     For comets, suggest 72 km/sec velocity and 475 meter ice comet simulating one of Nostradamus' strikes.
   • CRATER - 2 October 1999
     This is a short routine to evaluate the scaling equations to determine the diameter of a crater given details on the nature of the projectile, conditions of impact, and state of the target.
   • COMET CRASH: TERAFLOPS COMPUTER SIMULATES COLOSSAL COMET IMPACT INTO OCEAN
     The calculation assumed a 1-kilometer-diameter comet (weighing about a billion tons) traveling 60 kilometers per second and impacting Earth's atmosphere at about a 45 degree angle. This is small as far as comets go
     Low-lying areas like Florida would indeed be washed over, but Dave says the event is very close to the size threshold at which impact experts expect that a global catastrophe could occur, by screening out much sunlight for long periods of time and disrupting agriculture, among other effects. "Simulations of this kind can help pin down that energy threshold and help answer the question: Is it a regional or global catastrophe?"
   • FAQS ABOUT NEO IMPACTS
   • FEWER EARTHBOUND ASTEROIDS WILL HIT HOME
     Asteroids and not the threat, comets are!
   • WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN A COMET OR ASTEROID STRIKES THE EARTH?
   • DATA BASE OF TERRESTRIAL IMPACT STRUCTURES - click or world map.
   • CTH 3D COMET IMPACT SIMULATIONS Simulates a strike of a 1 kilometer diameter comet (weighing about 1 billion tons) into the Atlantic Ocean and releasing 300 Gigatons TNT equivalent energy. A 300 foot tidal wave would inundate Florida and much of the eastern seaboard.
   • CATCH THE WAVE: ASTEROID-DRIVEN TSUNAMI IN U.S. EASTERN SEABOARD'S FUTURE
     Researchers in California have developed a computer simulation depicting the ocean impact of the asteroid 1950 DA, a half-mile wide (1.1-kilometer) space rock that swings uncomfortably close to Earth in 2880.
   • SEVEN FOR THE SEVEN STARS IN THE SKY
     The book of Enoch mentions the stars on two occasions. One reference says:
     • "... and there I saw seven stars of the heavens bound together in it, like great mountains and burning with fire. Then I said: For what sin are they bound, and on what account have they been cast in hither... "
     • The same chapter elsewhere also describes the effect of the collisions of heavenly bodies presumably the seven stars, with Earth:
     • "... I saw in a vision how the heaven collapsed and was borne off and fell to the earth. And when it fell to the earth I saw how the earth was swallowed up in a great abyss, and mountains were suspended on mountains, and hills sank down on hills, and high trees were rent from their stems, and hurled and sunk in the abyss ... "
     I would suggest that not only is albido change involved in the process of ending an ice age, but changes in sea and air temperature (caused by the heat of the impacts) and in the greenhouse effect (caused by increased water vapour in the atmosphere.
     Lockheed Martin, one of the USA's biggest communications and space launch vehicle corporations, used its Sandia laboratories in New Mexico to simulate what was likely to happen when comet P/Shoemake/Levy/9 crashed into Jupiter. The simulation in advance of the event proved so accurate that the same team, led by David Crawford and Arthurine Breckenridge, did a simulation of a 1.4 kilometre comet weighing approximately 1000 million tons, crashing into the Atlantic Ocean 25 miles south of New York. First Austin Atkinson describes the computing power:
   • (8) WHEN A COMET MEETS A PLANET - Celestial Mechanics & Dynamical Astronomy, 1998, Vol.71, No.3, pp..191-201
     The objective of this paper is to develop a simple model of an encounter between a comet and a planet, with a subsequent capture or an escape, and to study the potential consequences.
   • (4) FAQ ON FIREBALLS AND METEORITE FALLS - 23 June 1998
   • ASTEROID TSUNAMIS COULD BE HUGE, SLOW
     The model showed that a one kilometer iron asteroid strikes with the power of 1.5 trillion tons of TNT and produces a spout of water more than twelve miles high.
     For instance, on land, a relatively small, 30 to 50-meter-wide asteroid would create quite a crater and a blast what would cause local damage. The same event in the sea, however, would cause waves that would scour a much larger area.
   • TSUNAMI FROM ASTEROID/COMET IMPACTS
     Tsunami generally travel very fast across the ocean (typically 500km/h or more). In deep water the tsunami height might not be great but the height can increase dramatically when they reach the shoreline because the wave slows in shallow water and the energy becomes more concentrated. In addition to the inherent increase in the height of the wave from this shoaling effect, the momentum of the wave might cause it to reach a considerable height as it travels up sloping land. It is typical for multiple waves to result from one tsunami-generating event and these could be several hours apart when they reach a distant shore.
   • SIMULATION OF ASTEROID/COMET IMPACTS WITH EARTH
     The largest impact recorded over the 100,000 year run was a stony asteroid 5 kilometers in diameter traveling at 29 kilometers per second. The 23 million megaton explosion produced a crater 60 kilometers across and the resulting climate catastrophe was sufficient to wipe out the human population.
   • SIMULATION OF ASTEROID/COMET IMPACTS WITH EARTH
     Although one million years seems a very long time, bear in mind that impacts do not run like clockwork - they could occur at any time. An event that happens once-in-one-million-years of the simulation has a one-in-a-million chance of happening in the next twelve months. This should not be dismissed as unimportant, particularly if it could involve billions of deaths and the end of civilization. After all, many optimistic people around the world regularly buy lottery tickets where the chance of winning first prize is one in 30 million or worse. The chance of getting dealt a royal flush in 5 card poker is about one in half a million.
   • WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN A COMET OR ASTEROID STRIKES THE EARTH?
     A large comet or asteroid greater than 1 kilometer in diameter that impacts Earth will produce a global catastrophe.
   • IMPACT FROM OUTER SPACE
     100-m to 1-km diameter impactors
     Toward the upper end of this size range, the megaton equivalent energy would so vastly exceed what has been studied in nuclear war scenarios that it is difficult to be certain of the effects. Extrapolation from smaller yields suggests that the "local" zones of damage from the impact of a 1-km object could envelop whole states or countries, with fatalities of tens of millions in a densely populated region. There would also begin to be noticeable global consequences, including alterations in atmospheric chemistry and cooling due to atmospheric dust -- perhaps analogous to the "year without a summer" in 1817, following the explosion of the volcano Tambora.
     1 km to 5 km diameter impactors
     The threshold for an impact that causes widespread global mortality and threatens civilization almost certainly lies between about 0.5 and 5 km diameter, perhaps near 2 km. What happens when an object several kilometres in diameter strikes the Earth at a speed of tens of kilometres per second? Primarily there is a massive explosion, sufficient to fragment and partially vaporize both the projectile and the target area. Meteoric phenomena associated with high speed ejecta could subject plants and animals to scorching heat for about half an hour, and a global firestorm might them ensue. Dust thrown up from a very large crater would lead to total darkness over the whole Earth, which might persist for several months. Temperatures could drop as much as tens of degrees C. Nitric acid, produced from the burning of atmospheric nitrogen in the impact fireball, would acidify lakes, soils, streams, and perhaps the surface layer of the oceans.
     
     1. It would destroy most of the world's food crops for a year, and /or
     2. It would result in the deaths of more than a quarter of the world's population, and/or
     3. It would have effects on the global climate similar to those calculated for "nuclear winter", and/or
     4. It would threaten the stability and future of modern civilization.
     5. A catastrophe having one, or all, of these traits would be a horrifying thing, unprecedented in history, with potential implications for generations to come.
   • CAN WE SURVIVE THE NEXT MAJOR ASTEROID IMPACT?
   • MASSIVE TSUNAMI SWEEPS ATLANTIC COAST IN ASTEROID IMPACT SCENARIO FOR MARCH 16, 2880 - May 27, 2003
   • WHAT IF HUGE ASTEROID HITS ATLANTIC? YOU DON'T WANT TO KNOW - January 8, 1998
     "Any asteroid over 600 feet in diameter, we have a real problem," Dr. Hills said.
3. ESTIMATED CURRENT HUMAN DEATHS FROM A COSMIC IMPACT
   • PLANETARY DEFENSE? - May 29, 2013
     There are about 1,000 asteroids a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earth's orbit (the path Earth takes around the Sun). About a third of these will eventually hit Earth [Lewis 1996a]. An asteroid strike this large can be reasonably expected to kill a billion people or so, depending on where it hits. A strike in China or India would kill more, in Antarctica less. Even a strike in the ocean would create a tsunami so enormous most people living near the coast would be drowned.
   • OJMD2.pdf? - Summer 1994
     A conservative rough threshold for the diameter of a colliding asteroid fiat would cause a global catastrophe (and not just local devastation) is set at about
     1.5 kilometers. Such a collision would release an en- ergy equivalent to 100,000 megatons of TNT, dis-rupt the &osphere, terminate agriculture, and likely kill more than a billion people.
   • 'BAND OF MISFITS' THEORY: METEORS ARE NOT THAT RARE - November 14, 2006
     On close inspection, the chevron deposits contain deep-ocean microfossils that are fused with a medley of metals typically formed by cosmic impacts. And all of them point in the same direction - toward the middle of the Indian Ocean where a newly discovered crater, 29 kilometers, or 18 miles, in diameter, lies 3,800 meters, or 12,500 feet, below the surface.
     The explanation is obvious to some scientists. A large asteroid or comet, the kind that could kill a quarter of the world's population, smashed into the Indian Ocean 4,800 years ago, producing a tsunami at least 183 meters high, about 13 times as big as the one that inundated Indonesia nearly two years ago. The wave carried the huge deposits of sediment to land.
     Scientists in the working group say the evidence for such impacts during the past 10,000 years, known as the Holocene epoch, is strong enough to overturn current estimates of how often the Earth suffers a violent impact on the order of a 10-megaton explosion. Instead of once in 500,000 to 1 million years, as astronomers now calculate, catastrophic impacts could happen every few thousand years.
   • RECENT COSMIC IMPACTS ON EARTH Do Global Myths Reflect an Ancient Disaster?
     Scientists who model the probabilities of comet and asteroid impacts on Earth estimate that a really devastating impact--capable of killing more than a billion people (at today's standards) and wiping out civilization as we know it- -has happened only every million years or so. Archaeologist Bruce Masse thinks such impacts may have happened more frequently, or at least more recently than believed by the astrophysical community. If he's right, the danger posed by near earth objects (NEOs) is possibly greater than we've thought.
     Masse, like many of today's archaeologists, isn't based in a museum or university, but works for a government agency--in his case, Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico.
     The same government agency that covered up the Noah's Ark Find!
4. EARTH IMPACT EVIDENCE
   • ANCIENT 'MEGAFLOODS' TILTED THE VERY DIRECTION OF EARTH'S CRUST, SCIENTISTS FIND - Feb 19, 2022
     Earth's last major ice age locked up gargantuan amounts of water in vast glaciers. Once they melted, it was a spectacle to behold as tremendous floods gouged channels into the face of the planet.
     The remnants of one of the largest of these ancient deluges are still visible in eastern Washington, in an area now known as the Channeled Scablands. For a long time, geologists have been struggling to understand the dynamic properties of these floods, until a recent key insight was made.
     These ancient glaciers were so large and heavy, they actually tilted Earth's crust beneath them – when weight was released due to melting, the land would have moved too, changing the course of the megaflood.
   • AN ANCIENT FIREBALL TURNED MILES OF THE WORLD'S DRIEST DESERT INTO GLASS - November 3, 2021
     The Atacama Desert in Chile has been used as a way to simulate alien environments, like Mars on Earth. Now, researchers believe it was the site of an ancient comet explosion intense enough to create giant slabs of silicate glass, according to a new study.
   • WHEN IT COMES TO MASS EXTINCTION, IT’S NOT THE SIZE BUT THE COMPOSITION OF THE IMPACT METEORITE THAT MATTERS - Jan 28, 2022 Specifically, they looked at the minerals in the massive amount of dust that an incoming meteorite throws up into the atmosphere. That dust can profoundly change Earth’s climate — and it is that climate change which researchers think is a major cause of mass extinctions following impacts.
     This study revealed something intriguing: Whenever a common mineral called potassium feldspar (also referred to as K-feldspar or Kfs) was present in high concentrations in the rocks that an incoming meteorite hit, the impact resulted in a mass extinction.
   • 5 OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT IMPACT CRATERS IN NORTH AMERICA - May 20, 2021
     Meteors, comets and asteroids have slammed into the earth with a force many times greater than the most powerful nuclear bombs. Sometimes, mass extinction followed.
     Barringer Crater: Crater Size: 4,000 ft. in diameter, 700 ft. deep
     Chesapeake Bay Crater: Crater Size: 25 miles in diameter
     Manicouagan Crater: Crater Size: 40 miles in diameter
     Sudbury Basin: Crater Size: 37 miles by 18 miles
     Chicxulub Crater: Size of Crater: 100 miles in diameter
     There are roughly 180 known impact craters worldwide and fully a third of them—including some of the biggest—are located in North America. These massive blast zones were formed by meteors, asteroids and comets that slammed into the earth’s surface with a force many times greater than today’s most powerful nuclear bombs. One of those impacts, dating roughly 66 million years ago on Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, triggered the mass extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs.
   • THE METEORITE MEN AND THE ODESSA CRATER
     There would be no way to turn a cluster of fragments such as that aside. And we are beginning to realize that there is nothing to indicate impact storms like that are rare. The one the hit the Southwest a few thousand years ago may have been the worst in 65 million years. But smaller ones that devastated tens of thousands of square miles on land, or generated giant impact Tsunamis, when they hit an ocean, seem to have been happening about 1,500 years apart for the past 20 or 30 thousand years. They come out of the Taurid meteor stream.
     

     VULCAN GENERATED COMET SWARMS
     Vulcan draws in Kuiper belt objects that fragment into meteor or comet swarms if they pass near the Sun. Figure 7 shows how these Vulcan related swarms move about the Sun.
     Figure 7. Vulcan Related Meteor Or Comet Swarms.
     These swarms are labeled A' & A and B' & B respectively. A rogue swarm C is also present. Their periods (~3313 years) are about are two thirds that of Vulcan's, but vary slightly due to Vulcan's distant presence. The 3:2 resonate orbit means that the comets orbit the Sun three times every time Vulcan orbits it twice. Thus, for an interval of every three comet revolutions, or two Vulcan revolutions, the celestial geometry modifying the periods of the distant comet swarms is the same as before. This interval is theoretically 9938 years, two times Vulcan's theoretical 4969 year period.
     
     HAS EARTH BEEN HIT OFTEN?
     Comet impacts cause times of great cold, even Ice Ages, because they stir up so much dust. Evidence can be found in "tree ring", "ice core" and other data. Geochronology data shown in the following table indicate that Earth has been hit often recently. Five comet swarms have formed at two distant (444 AU) locations separated by 13^o in Vulcan's elliptical orbit. All are formed in a 3:2 resonance orbits during two sequential Vulcan orbital revolutions. These are similar to the red Plutinos found in a 3:2 resonance orbit with Neptune. These Vulcan related swarms are labeled A' & A and B' & B respectively. A rogue swarm C (same period anticipated) is also present. The separation of the A' to A and B to B swarms is found to be about 666 - 790 years. Multiple comet clusters (Cl) within each swarm exist. Images of these clusters have been found carved in solid rock.

   • A NEOLITHIC COMET
     Comets are jokers in the celestial pack. They erupt, usually without forewarning, into the orderly progression of the sky. They cross the celestial sphere in weeks or months, growing one or more tails, before fading and disappearing from sight. On rare occasions a comet may be an awesome sight, and the historical literature of the past two thousand years is sprinkled with accounts of the fear induced when a great comet, its smoky red tail bisecting the heavens, appears in the night sky. In the remote past, tales of such apparitions were often conflated with stories of disaster on Earth.
     A comet called Typhon in Greek mythology was connected with a mythological flood, and the legend of Phaethon, in which the sun’s chariot went off course and the Earth was first burned up and then flooded, may describe an exceptional meteorite impact. There is good evidence that the sky in Neolithic times was dominated by a recurrent, giant comet, and that the Earth annually ran through an associated meteor storm of huge intensity. The origin of religion dates to these times and may be tied up with this spectacular night sky. The prospect that cosmic myths, megaliths and art dating from this time may have been responses on the ground to threats in the sky has in recent years moved from Velikovskian fancy to a subject for serious scholarly discussion.

     SKY CIRCLES CONNECTED TO CROP CIRCLES - 29 Mar. 2011

     It appears that the ET aliens noticed the extent that our 'elite' have gone to in order to suppress the information that they were offering the people. Thus, they generated several 'Blue Beam' Sky Circle events. These are very difficult to fraud without going to extreme expense . The governments of the world have tried to connect these with military missiles but with little success. See the images near the end of this ALIEN TECHNOLOGY section. However the most interesting 'Blue Beam' events is the one over Christchurch New Zealand of 29 March 2011.

     UFO, Radar, Anomaly, Project Blue Beam, Spiral, Stargate? New Zealand Christchurch 29.03.2011 - Apr 1, 2011 or:
     Strange Anomaly - New Zealand Christchurch - Project Blue Beam? - UFO? - Apr 3, 2011

     The most interesting part of this 'Sky Circle' light show went almost unnoticed. It was the presence of red 'UFOs with tails'. These 7 red (comet like objects from the Kuiper Belt?) are most intriguing and appear at 6:04. These can also be observed at about 4:45 & especially 5:45 into the following video.

     
     Figure 8. The Seven Christchurch Simulated Red Comets - Formed 03/29/11
     One of 12 Photo by Benjamin_T_C

   • A DIFFERENT KIND OF CLIMATE CATASTROPHE
     There are well over 50,000 square miles of geo-ablative terrains like that in North Central Mexico alone. The zone extends up into west Texas. And the region is unique on the surface of the Earth. The Arid climate has preserved the blast effected materials in context, and in perfect condition. And except for the occasional sage brush, or cactus, most of it is in almost the same condition as it was the first year after the impact storm.
     The timing of the two oblique crater fields in Nevada, and Montana, and the fact that Lake Missoula was downrange from the Montana impacts implies that the last time that ice dam failed, the impact storm these two fields of oval craters describe may have been the trigger, was it?
     A Comet Storm
     Imagine along with me for a moment. What say we take a great big comet, say 50 to 100 km wide, out of the Oort Cloud, or the Kuiper belt, and inject it into the inner solar system. And we park it an elliptical, Earth crossing orbit, and break it up into not so little pieces. Let’s give it enough time for tidal forces to break it up completely, and stretch it out a bit. Our average fragment Should be about the size of the Tunguska object. But they ranged from more than a half mile wide, all the way down to clouds of dust.
     As the Earth’s orbit brings it across orbital path of the giant, fragmented comet’s debris streams , the fragments begin to fall into the atmosphere from the south at a low angle. And more than 30 km/sec.
     The eastern end of the Laurentide Ice sheet got hit in an area from Northern Minnesota, and the Great Lakes to the Arctic Circle. When the down-blasts of thermal impact plasma hit the Laurentide Ice sheet, they caused titanic hydrothermal explosions (steam) that lofted huge icebergs hundreds of miles in all directions. In a matter of minutes, much of the eastern end of the LIS was obliterated. Much of which probably went into the atmosphere as steam. The ice sheet impacts evaporated millions of acre feet of ice directly into the atmosphere as steam. There was probably much more of the ice sheet that went up as steam, only to rain down in the days, and weeks, that followed than was melted to flow into the sea. As North America burned, the storms around the world raged. There were probably torrential rains everywhere in the northern hemisphere for weeks afterward. How long exactly? Who knows? We can only estimate. But for a good ball park figure to start from, the biblical 40 days, and 40 nights, sounds about right to me.
     And the signs of massive flooding that have been attributed by generations of geologists to the bursting of ice damns holding back Glacial lake Agassiz are very probably the flood effects of the flash melting of major portions of the eastern end of the Laurentide ice sheet. And the outflows from the resulting floods would’ve been to the north into the Arctic ocean, and the North Atlantic. There would also have been armadas of icebergs after the event in both areas. And I expect that the glacial till in those bergs must have been deposited on the ocean floor below as they melted. So I’d expect to see some evidence of that armada of icebergs in ocean cores.
     While the mega floods from the blasted ice sheet were still flowing into the sea. Much of the biomass of western North America was burned away. And much of the resultant smoke, and soot, was blown high above the atmosphere where it blocked sunlight for years. There was an immediate sharp drop in temperatures world wide. And it was the worst kind of ’Perfect Storm’. Made all the worse because at the same time the destruction of the LIS caused a sudden rise in sea levels world wide. It it may have caused a shutdown of the thermal haline cycle which brings tropical warmth to the North Atlantic. Be that as it may, Northern Europe quickly cooled to arctic temperatures. And the cold remained for something like 1,300 years.
     One could make a good case that similar comet impact storms from the Taurid Complex caused the Bronze Age collapse 5,200 years ago.
     In fact there is a very real probability that devastating impact storms from the Taurid complex were a bi-annual event of varying intensity that happened twice a year for many millennia both before and after the postulated YD trigger event. And the YD event 12,900 years ago was just the worst of many.
     The remaining debris of the Taurid Complex is still out there. And there are still fragments of significant size in Earth crossing orbits. It is almost a certainty that the next major impact event will be an airburst. And it is a certainty that we haven’t seen the last catastrophic impact event of the Taurid Complex.
     Something wicked this way comes. It’s been here a few times before. It’s caused extinctions before. It’s even killed humans in large numbers before. And it can be implicated in the collapse of many bronze age civilizations. Next time it comes back, it would be good to see it coming in time to get people out of the way. And to prepare for human survival in a drastically altered globate climate. Yet congress would rather whiz away 70 million dollars trying to convince us a trace gas that’s important for life to flourish on this planet should be thought of as a pollutant. All the while giving funding for impact research, and the search for Near Earth Objects, little more than lip service.
   • THE YOUNGER DRYAS – THE REST OF THE STORY
     The genesis of the Younger Dryas stadial (cold interval) remains an enigma. The onset was both climatologically unexpected and extremely sudden. The two principle theories are diametrically opposed and the proponents of both deeply committed. The debate to date has primarily been centered on some unusual “black mat’ deposits that may or may not be linked to a cosmic origin. What has been lacking in the wider discussion are all the other important features associated with the Younger Dryas. The following addresses many of these in hopes of their inclusion in future debates.
   • THE NORTHEAST IMPACT ZONE AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE LAURENTIDE ICE SHEET
     The lines of movement in the melted, flowing stone in the area are clear, and well preserved. Also, they, and the nature of the rocks in the area, are consistent with being the burn marks of tremendous hydrothermal explosions in the ice sheet. They are the grayish to pinkish, sometimes blurry looking areas with flowing lines of once fluid, and moving,’ stone in them. And the number, and spacing of the hydrothermal burns is exactly what we would expect from many pieces of a large, fragmented, comet exploding in the Ice sheet.
     The lines were formed as the stone was flash melted in the heat of the impact. The Ice added a different variable though. And it took the impact much the same way reactive armor works on a battle tank.
     Instead of a crater we see the signature of the violence in the fast flowing rivers of melted stone flowing among the shattered remains of the Ice sheet. The green peat depressions are the footprints of icebergs.
   • CALIFORNIA MELT
     There is significant evidence of massive fires, associated with major ecosystem disruption, and extinctions, at the Younger Dryas Boundary layer at locations in California’s North Channel Islands. See Wildfire and abrupt ecosystem disruption on California’s Northern Channel Islands at the Ållerød–Younger Dryas boundary (13.0–12.9 ka) by D.J. Kennet et al. The nano-diamonds, and other evidences, which have been found on the islands off the coast clearly show that the comet fragments were falling as far west as the Pacific Ocean. This implied that there should be accompanying melt formations in California related to some of those impacts. There are, and they are within walking distance of my home.
   • SOUTHWEST MONTANA
     Since both oblique crater fields are inline with one another, and they both have exactly the same trajectory, and they both date to the early Holocene, it’s a fair bet they both fell in the same impact storm. Glacial Lake Missoula was just down range from them. And I can’t help but wonder:
     Was this multiple fragment impact event the trigger for the break up of the ice dam at the Clark Fork River in Northern Idaho, and the resulting mega-floods that gouged the Channeled Scablands of Eastern Washington, and the Grande Coulee?
   • A THERMAL AIRBURST IMPACT STRUCTURE
     
   • COMETS AND THE BRONZE AGE COLLAPSE
     . . . and from heaven a great star shall fall on the dread ocean and burn up the deep sea, with Babylon itself and the land of Italy, by reason of which many of the Hebrews perished
     , . . . Be afraid, ye Indians and high-hearted Ethiopians: for when the fiery wheel of the ecliptic(?) . . . and Capricorn . . . and Taurus among the Twins encircles the mid-heaven, when the Virgin ascending and the Sun fastening the girdle round his forehead dominates the whole firmament; there shall be a great conflagration from the sky, falling on the earth;
     ...
     We move now to a discussion of a word which probably refers to comets, BIBBU. . . BIBBU has a variety of astromantic and non-astromantic meanings. There is a lengthy omen text, the 56th tablet of Enuma Anu Enlil, which deals with various features of the BIBBU, and some of these seem to describe comets. For example:
     If a BIBBU continues one day, two days in the sky and does not disappear:
     If three or four BIBBUS rise one after the other at sunrise
     The latter text might refer to a comet which has broken up into three or four comets . . . .
     There are many more references to BIBBU, but in them the translations "unspecified planet" or "meteor" could be proposed.
     Confusion of planet terminology is also evident further to the east as can be demonstrated by James Legge’s translation of a passage concerning the emperor Kwei in the ANNALS OF THE BAMBOO BOOKS:
     In his 10th year, the five planets went out of their courses. In the night, stars fell like rain. The earth shook. The E and Loh became dry.
   • THE IMPACT CRATER
   • EVERY RECORDED METEORITE STRIKE ON EARTH SINCE 2,300 BCE MAPPED - February 18, 2013
   • EARTH'S OLDEST KNOWN IMPACT CRATER FOUND IN GREENLAND - June 28, 2012
     A 100 kilometre-wide crater has been found in Greenland, the result of a massive asteroid or comet impact a billion years before any other known collision on Earth.
     Finding the evidence was made all the harder because there is no obvious bowl- shaped crater left to find. Over the 3 billion years since the impact, the land has been eroded down to expose deeper crust 25 km below the original surface. All external parts of the impact structure have been removed, but the effects of the intense impact shock wave penetrated deep into the crust - far deeper than at any other known crater - and these remain visible.
   • THE MYSTERIOUS CRESTONE CRATER: A REAL METEOR CRATER OR NOT? - July 2, 2011
     Known as the “Crestone Crater” to most, this striking feature lies inside of the Great Sand Dunes National Park, one mile from the Liberty Gate entrance in the Baca, and 6 miles from downtown Crestone. This crater measures 355 feet by 246 feet with a mean depth of 23 feet..
     So could this crater have been formed by a comet? Yes, but according to a few geologists that’s not likely. Impacts from comets on Earth are very rare. However, the materials left behind on impact by a comet would be more in line with what has been found to date at the Crestone Crater, that being, comet impacts leave little behind because of their icy makeup.
     
     The Crestone Crater.
   • A CATASTROPHE OF COMETS
     In it we see the exploding comet detonating high in the atmosphere, and becoming a supersonic down draft of thermal impact plasma hotter than the surface of the sun. But watch the sequence closely. And pay particular attention to the post impact updraft at the center of the flow. And to the directions of flow of the airburst vortex at the surface, as the impact plume develops at the center of the vortex. You might want to replay it a few times.
     The picture begins to make since when we realize that the mountain, and its pristine ejecta curtain is only a few thousand years old.
     The shocker here, is that the mountain did not exist in any form at all at the moment of impact.
     There are well over 50,000 square miles of geo-ablative terrains like this in central Mexico alone. And the region is unique on the surface of the Earth. The Arid climate has preserved the blast effected materials in context, and in perfect condition. Most of it is in almost the same condition as it was the first year after the impact storm.
     COMMENT
     I hope Dr Boslough will correct me if I’m mistaken. But I’m pretty sure the simulation you see here is based on a half mile wide fragment.
     
     

     The mountain, and others like it, are the central uplift of an airburst impact structure that is different from anything ever described before.

   • ASTEROID IMPACT IN OZ CHANGED THE FACE OF EARTH - Feb 20, 2013
     The impact zone, which centres on the East Warburton Basin in north-eastern South Australia, was caused by an asteroid up to 20 kilometres-wide that slammed into the planet between 298 and 360 million years ago, researchers at Australian National University (ANU) and University of Queensland have claimed.
     “This shock metamorphic terrain covers an area of over 30,000 square kilometres making it the third-largest site of its kind ever discovered on earth,” Glikson said. To confirm the area was an impact zone, Glikson and colleagues studied quartz grains retrieved from drill holes.
     "Asteroid impacts commonly occur in clusters of two or more projectiles," he said, adding “Where impacts are near- contemporaneous they’re usually fragments of a larger body broken apart by the gravitational effect of the earth-Moon system.
   • GIANT ASTEROID IMPACT FOUND IN AUSSIE OUTBACK - 25 Oct 2010
     Evidence of what may be Australia's second largest impact crater has turned up on the Queensland-SA border.
     AUSTRALIAN RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND evidence of a major asteroid impact that occurred near the Queensland-South Australia border more than 300 million years ago.
     The asteroid, which produced a "shock zone" at least 80 km wide, could be the second-largest impact ever found in Australia.
   • A CRATER A DAY
     When I first started with all this, my intention was to see if I could figure out a better way to scope out new, undocumented craters, or likely places to go meteorite hunting. I didn’t do so well at first. But ironically, when I quit looking for new craters, and started focusing on identifying formations of airburst melt, I began to find too many new craters to count…
   • "FRESH" CRATER FOUND IN EGYPT; CHANGES IMPACT RISK - July 22, 2010
     A SMALL IMPACT CRATER DISCOVERED IN THE EGYPTIAN DESERT COULD CHANGE ESTIMATES FOR IMPACT HAZARDS TO OUR PLANET, ACCORDING TO A NEW STUDY.
     Based on their calculations, the team thinks that a 4.2-foot-wide (1.3-meter- wide) solid iron meteor weighing 11,023 to 22,046 pounds (5,000 to 10,000 kilograms) smashed into the desert—nearly intact—at speeds exceeding 2.1 miles (3.5 kilometers) a second.
     COMMENT i work as a prison guard and i was hit by a falling rock on 9july09 940pm wilkes-barre,pa. it is pea sized/golden greyish color/crystalline structure/has zig-zag cut on surface where something blew off(fusion crust?).has a scars on surface (ablation scaring) i think it is a piece of comet 109pSWIFT-TUTTLE COMET PIECE. have picturesx24power. out of this world!!!acesand@live.com
   • HOW MANY CRATERS
   • SOLAR EMPIRE SHORTS: EARTH IMPACT
     CRATER ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU.
   • THE WOODBURY STRUCTURE ALONG WITH TWO POSSIBLE SMALLER KELK CRATERS
     
     The coordinates of the main are 32^o 55’ N by 84^o 32’W. It is a multiple structure with a second AND THIRD smaller crater angling off to the northeast from the main crater which is nearly 5 miles in diameter. It is so old that it is filled in and the Flint River even runs through it. It is in a beautiful area and the local name for it is the "River Cove" area. There is a park there with some cliffs but there has been no geological recognition of it as a crater. It is so old that it blends in with the surrounding Appalachian hills but it is still recognizable.
     
     Pretty much the whole left side of the image is crater, with the river running through it. On the upper right are two other craters suggesting that the main body broke apart before impact. These smaller craters trail to the northeast. They suggest that the impactor was a comet or a Kuiper belt object rather than an asteroid. John Kelk discovered the smaller craters circa 2009.
   • ASTRONOMER: EARTH SAFE FROM ASTEROIDS FOR NOW
     About 170 craters have been identified as having been caused by space objects, she said. Many more haven't been found yet, or won't be because they're under oceans.
   • 10 GREATEST MAJOR-IMPACT CRATERS ON EARTH
   • CRATERS ON EARTH
     It was not until we began to look at Earth using satellites that we began to see lots of big impact craters on Earth--about 150 are now known. This map shows the locations of some of them.
   • (3) HOLOCENE IMPACT CRATERS 10,000 BP up-dated list of Holocene impact craters
     Tsöörikmäe (Estonia) c. 9,500 BP (date: Pirrus; Tiirmaa)
     Mache (Russia) c. 7,000 BP (date: Shoemaker/Grieve)
     Ilumetsa (Estonia) c. 6,000 BP (date:Czegka)
     Henbury (Australia) c. 5,000 BP (date: Shoemaker/Grieve)
     Boxhole (Australia) c. 5,000 BP (date: Shoemaker/Grieve)
     Morasko (Poland) c. 5,000 BP (date: Czegka)
     Campo del Cielo (Argentina) c. 4,000 BP (date: Shoemaker/Grieve)
     Rio Cuarto (Argentina) c. 4,000 BP (date: P. Schultz)
     Kaalijarvi (Estonia) c. 4,000 BP (date: Shoemaker/Grieve)
     Wabar (Saudi Arabia) c. 600 BP (date: Wynn/Shoemaker)
     Simuna (Estonia) c. 50 BP (date: Pirrus; Tiirmaa)
   • 186-MILE-WIDE CRATER TOPS GROWING LIST OF BIG HOLES
     QUESTION: What is the world's largest impact crater?
     ANSWER: The largest known impact crater probably is the Vredefort formation in South Africa. Severely eroded, it's about 2.023 billion years old and originally was probably 186 miles across, according to reconstructions.
     Manicouagan: A circular lake in Quebec outlines an eroded crater more than 60 miles across that occurred about 215 million years ago, about the time the dinosaur age began.
     Chicxulub: University of Arizona researchers helped identify this 120-mile-wide buried formation in Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, partly offshore, in the 1990s and are now exploring it in detail. A massive impact formed it about 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs died out.
     Bedout: Recently, scientists reported strong evidence that a 125-mile-wide crater, the 250 million-year-old Bedout structure, lurks beneath the waters off northwestern Australia.
     Popigai: This Russian crater more than 60 miles across formed 35 million years ago.
     Acraman: This Australian crater is more than 50 miles wide and 590 million years old.
     Chesapeake Bay: A more than 50-mile-wide crater lies hidden beneath Virginia's Chesapeake Bay. It's about 35 million years old.
   • UNCOVERING AN ASTEROID
     Fragments of an ancient asteroid have revealed new details about asteroid impacts on Earth.
     In Morokweng, South Africa, lies a crater larger than the city of London. With a diameter of over 70 km, it is one of the ten largest craters on the planet and was created when a huge asteroid collided with the Earth about 144 million years ago. Usually, asteroids large enough to create craters more than four kilometres wide are vaporised by the high temperatures created when they hit the Earth. But recently, an international group of scientists accidentally discovered a fragment of an asteroid in the Morokweng crater that is believed to be a piece of the destructive, ancient space rock.
   • DRILLING SET AT CHESAPEAKE BAY METEOR SITE
   • NEO NEWS (02/23/05) IMPACTS AT THE AAAS
     The Chesapeake impact produced a large "strewn field" of melted ejecta called the North American Tektites. The impacting object was probably between 3 and 5 km in diameter. This impact was unusual in that it took place on the continental shelf beneath several hundred meters of water, in water-saturated rock. There is some evidence of a very large tsunami produced by this impact, which was in deeper water than the Chicxulub impact in Mexico.
     One of the mysteries of this impact is its coincidence in time with the 100-km- diameter Popigai crater in Siberia, which also has an estimated age near 35 million years. Comparative studies of the two similar-size craters will surely be interesting, one occurring on dry land and the other underwater. There are apparently two global impact layers that have been identified in Italy separated by 10-20 cm, and perhaps these can be linked to the two craters and will provide a measure of the interval of time between the impacts.
   • UK'S 'COMET' CRATER INVESTIGATED
   • GEOLOGY AND THE GREAT FLOOD Some Good Pictures
   • QUEBEC'S MANICOUAGAN RESERVOIR - 70 km diameter
   • COSMIC EARTH IMPACT LINKS
   • EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL RISK - Jef's web files
   • LINKS
   • IMPACT LINKS:
   • EARTH IMPACT DATABASE
   • EARTH IMPACT DATA BASE
   • IMPACT CRATERS ON EARTH
   • WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE... Lots of links.
   • IMPACT CRATER
   • IT'S THE END OF THE WORLD, AS WE KNOW IT
   • TERRESTRIAL IMPACT CRATERS, Second Edition
   • THREE CRATERS IN ISRAEL
   • CONTROVERSIAL THEORIES OF THE HISTORY OF HUMANITY, THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM: RE-EVALUATING ANCIENT HISTORY
   • MASSIVE METEORITES IN GEOLOGICAL HISTORY - August 1990
     The impact of asteroids or comets striking the earth may have cracked the planet's crust, causing cataclysmic lava flows, environmental upheaval, mass extinctions, and plate boundaries.
   • CATASTROPHIC THEORY OF MOUNTAIN UPLIFTS by Donald W. Patten And Samuel R. Windsor
   • PRESTO, CHANGE-O! Extraterrestrial impacts transform Earth's surface in an instant
   • THE FOLLOWING (EACH IS A SEPARATE PAGE) ARE LINKS TO DIFFERENT GREAT FLOOD MYTHS:
   • THE COSMIC CATASTROPHE SURVIVAL STRATEGY BY TALAKO
   • (1) COMETS, DRAGONS AND PROPHETS OF DOOM - May 1998
     Ancient myths, tree ring studies and archaeological evidence all confirm that a rare giant comet may have visited the Earth only a few thousand years ago, raining fireballs and meteors in its wake.
     Dr Bill Napier, astronomer at Armagh Observatory, and Dr Victor Clube of Oxford and Armagh Universities (sic), have investigated the doom-laden cosmic myths of early civilisation. From the Persian prophet Zooraster, who in 500 BC predicted the end of the world caused by 'a huge comet sent by Satan' to the description in the Book of Revelations of a 'burning mountain' falling from the sky, early history is full of myths of celestial combat, rains of fire and many-headed dragons, which support astronomers' theories of the existence of a tumultuous night sky. Recent terrestrial research has provided 'hard' evidence to support theories of close encounters with comets.
   • THE AGE OF FIRE AND GRAVEL written by I. Donnelly in 1883. He hypothesized that all those sheets of unconsolidated rocky debris strewn across the planet (called the "drift") were the consequence of comet's impacts.
   • THE LOESS AS A BIZARRE PRECIPITATE
   • ADDED THOUGHTS (ON LOESS)
   • HUGE METEORITE DISCOVERED UNDERGROUND IN KANSAS
     According to the American Museum of Natural History in New York, the so-called Brenham meteorite exploded centuries ago over what is now Kansas, scattering more than three tons of fragments.
   • IMMENSE CIRCULAR TERRESTRIAL STRUCTURES OF GREAT AGE These circles measure between 7 and 700 kilometers in diameter and are nearly perfect geometrical figures. To date (1978), some 1,170 circles have been discovered, of which more than half can be visually traced for 360? Now the Kara-Bogaz-Gol of the Caspian Sea can be added. See SPIRITUAL SOURCES in the 1997 Paper.
   • A RE-EVALUATION OF THE EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORIGIN OF THE CAROLINA BAYS A comet strike appears to explain the recent formation of the Carolina bays in the late Wisconsinan or early Holocene time frame (about ten thousand years ago. Elliptical craters ranging in size from 200 feet to seven miles formed the half million Carolina bays
   • DID A HALF MILLION METEORS FALL ON THE CAROLINAS?
   • MOON-LIKE CRATERS IN THE NORTH SEA FLOOR Thousands of elliptical craters or pockmarks in the sediments were discovered, ranging from 30-330 feet across, 6-25 feet deep, and located in water about 500 feet deep. The long axes of the craters point roughly in the same direction; and the craters tend to be arranged in lines like those of the Carolina Bays.
   • EIGHT LITTLE CRATERS ALL IN A ROW See Figure.
   • (1) IMPACT RESEARCH CURRENT ACTIVITIES/PROGRESS - June:August, 1998
     The Woodleigh structure, Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, is buried by flat- lying Cretaceous strata of the Gascoyne Platform, but is manifested by a multi- ring Bouguer anomaly approximately 120 km in diameter that coincides with an overall magnetic 'low'.
   • POSSIBLE CHAIN OF METEORITE SCARS IN ARGENTINA See Figure.
   • EUROPE'S BIGGEST SMACH HIT - 15 February 1999
     Geologists prospecting for oil in the Barents Sea have stumbled across the largest meteorite crater ever found in Europe. It is also one of the largest in the world. It was formed 150 million years ago when an asteroid, possibly 500m (550 yards) across and travelling at 30,000 km/h (19,000 mph), plunged into the sea off the coast of Norway. This chain of impact is thought to be one of the five most important catastrophes that have happened on Earth. They estimate the Rochechouart meteorite measured 15km and the Bizeneuille one perhaps even bigger. The suggest that the impacts were the equivalent of 40 million Hiroshimas (yes 40 million), affecting thousands of square km in the Northern hemisphere. Notice a "chain of impacts, as if from a fragmenting comet.
   • (3) LARGEST IMPACT STRUCTURE DISCOVERED IN FRANCE?
     Apparently, geologists who were re-analyzing Landsat 2 pictures of Rochechouart and Bizeneuille, two adjacent areas of south-western France, discovered that the two already known 20 km-wide craters were in fact 200 to 300 km wide! There shock waves actually touched each other, as their impats were 140 km apart, 200 million years ago.
     Further research has revealed that other 200 million year old impacts have the same latitude: Manicouagan (Québec) and Saint-Martin (Canada). Red Wing (USA) and Obolon (Ukraine) are also located on the same path that can be traced between Manicouagan and Rochechouart. Remember the multiple impacts on Jupiter? Same phenomenon here, they say.
     
   • (6) CHAIN OF CRATERS - Discover Magazine - July 1998
     Geologist John Spray of the University of New Brunswick in Canada chiseled some rock samples from the ancient Rochechouart crater in west-central France. Geologists had debated the crater's age for some time, and Spray wanted to use a new dating technique to settle the issue. His resultoan age of 214 million years reminded him that the Manicouagan crater in Quebec was about that old. Intrigued, he did some more sleuthing and found three more craters of a similar age: Saint Martin, in Manitoba; Obolon, in the Ukraine; and tiny Red Wing, in North Dakota. Could all five craters have been created simultaneously? If so, it could explain a mass extinction of that age.
   • DEVASTATING EFFECTS OF A CATASTROPHIC COINCIDENCE - January 21. 2009
     “Catastrophic coincidence” seems barely adequate to describe that day 30 million years ago.
     While volcanoes were spewing floods of magma over southern Arabia, a meteorite was hurtling through space towards central Europe.
     It was only in the last year that researchers have been able to obtain a relatively accurate date of the impact that left a 17km-wide crater in Belarus, then realising that it coincided with the flood volcanism then underway in what is now Yemen.
     As the lead researcher, Sarah Sherlock of Britain’s Open University, explains, the interest in the coincidence comes from it being only the second proven example of a catastrophic coincidence. The other example of this double whammy of meteorite impact and flood volcanism is thought to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
     According to research published this month in the Journal of the Geological Society, the meteorite that hit what is now Belarus and the flood volcanism in Yemen are associated with a period of previously unexplained sudden global cooling and sea-level fluctuation.
     According to figures for the frequency of marine extinctions, there was a blip around 30 million years ago. By comparison to the Chicxulub/Deccan Traps coincidence, however, this looks like a speed bump.
     But the Chicxulub/Deccan Traps coincidence 65 million years ago is just the most recent event in what are known as the big five extinction events in the earth’s history. Based on marine species that left fossilised remains, there were also equal or bigger extinctions 208m, 245m, 354m and 438m years ago.
   • ADDING UP THE RISKS OF COSMIC IMPACTHISTORICAL RECORD
     Bruce Masse, an environmental archaeologist with Los Alamos National Laboratory, has tried to untangle other astronomical observations from ancient tales told from the Middle East to Hawaii. He referred to an impact event in the Rio Cuarto region of northern Argentina, in which an asteroid 100 to 300 yards (or meters) in diameter apparently broke up as it zoomed through the atmosphere, leaving a trail of craters.
   • IMPACT CRATERS: THE PARTY LINE REVISED AND RE-REVISED
   • ASTEROIDS OFTEN TRAVEL, AND STRIKE, IN PAIRS
   • AN IMPACT CRATER IN NORTHEAST SOUTH CAROLINA
     Inferred from Potential Field Data Although over 50 meteorite impact craters have been identified in North America, from Alaska to Chicxulub, Mexico, until now none have been reported from the southeastern Atlantic states.
   • TOMS CANYON IMPACT CRATER
   • VIRGINIA'S EXTRATERRESTRIAL IMPACT CRATER
   • DOUBLE IMPACT CRATER ON THE ATLANTIC SEABED?
   • INVESTIGATION OF A POTENTIAL METEORITE IMPACT CRATER, ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN, NORTH CAROLINA
     Examination of aerial photography from the inner Atlantic Coastal Plain/Piedmont transition identified an anomalous circular feature which was hypothesized to represent the margins of a meteorite impact crater. This feature is approximately 2.5 km in diameter and its margins are outlined by drainages that lie 10 m lower than the topographically higher central area.
   • (2) DETECTION OF A DUST TRAIL IN THE ORBIT OF AN EARTH-THREATENING LONG-PERIOD COMET
     ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, 1997, Vol.479, No.1 Pt1, pp.441-447
   • (1) LEONID IMPACTS ON MOON OBSERVED AGAIN And Explosions on the Moon
     "Like Earth, the Moon also plowed through comet Tempel-Tuttle's debris field on Nov. 18th," says Bill Cooke of the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. But, unlike Earth, the Moon doesn't have an atmosphere where meteoroids harmlessly disintegrate." Instead, lunar Leonids hit the ground and explode.
5. COMETARY ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE
   • * WHERE ON EARTH DID THE WATER COME FROM? - Feb 15, 2022
     The source of Earth's water has been a longstanding debate and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) scientists think they have the answer—and they found it by looking at rocks from the moon.
     Since the Earth-moon system formed together from the impact of two large bodies very early in solar system history, their histories are very much linked. And since the moon lacks plate tectonics and weathering, processes that tend to erase or obscure evidence on Earth, the moon is actually a great place to look for clues to the history of Earth's water.
     "Earth was either born with the water we have, or we were hit by something that was basically pure H2O, with not much else in it. This work eliminates meteorites or asteroids as possible sources of water on Earth and points strongly toward the 'born with it' option," said cosmochemist Greg Brennecka, a co-author of the paper.
   • * RELATION BETWEEN COMETS AND EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE UNCOVERED - June 8, 2017
   • WATER CAME TO EARTH ABOARD A COMET - STUDY - May, 09, 2015
     "Our research has found that, rather than being unique, water-rich asteroids similar to those found in our Solar System appear to be frequent. Accordingly, many planets may have contained a volume of water, comparable to that contained in the Earth," lead researcher Dr. Roberto Raddi, of the University of Warwick's Astronomy and Astrophysics Group, said in a press release.
   • COMET IMPACT SHOCKWAVE MAY HAVE PLANTED SEEDS OF LIFE ON EARTH 13 Sept. 2010
   • THE SEARCH IS ON FOR EARTH'S MISSING TWO BILLION YEARS -
   • ALL WET, OR HIGH AND DRY? - August 5th, 2010
     The lunar interior may contain far less water than Earth’s
     The inside of the moon might not be all wet after all. A new study suggests that, contrary to recent work, the lunar interior is as bone-dry as scientists thought 40 years ago, when NASA astronauts lugged home the first moon rocks.
     New analyses of chlorine in those rocks, published online August 5 in Science, indicate that the moon contains just one-10,000th to one-100,000th the water that the Earth’s interior does.
     Most scientists think the moon was born when a huge object roaming the inner solar system — something about the size of Mars — smashed into the embryonic Earth. Debris from the collision coalesced to form the moon. As it cooled, an ocean of magma covering its surface began to crystallize. Sharp and his colleagues studied what happened to two isotopes of the element chlorine during that process.
   • NEW MOON FINDING HOLDS CLUES TO EARTH'S WATER - 5 August, 2010
     THE GIST
     Moon rocks contain chemical evidence that they are drier than any on Earth.
     Any water on the moon is on the surface, in craters.
     The discovery could help sort out how the moon formed and where Earth got its water.
     “We find that the moon rocks have 25 times the variability of terrestrial rocks,” said Sharp of the chlorine isotopes. “The only explanation is that the moon is anhydrous (waterless).”
     “There is an ongoing debate on the origin of water on Earth,” said Righter. Was it from comet impacts about 500 million years after Earth was created? Or was it all vented from molten materials that cooled to form the planet? “Those two issues -- lunar and Earth water -- are related and linked.”
   • LUNAR ROCKS YIELD NO WATER - - 6 August, 2010
     Dr Trevor Ireland from the Australian National University in Canberra says the findings confirm the Moon is as dry as previously thought.
     "The insides of the Moon are very dry," says Ireland. "The new results mean the water that reached the Moon from comet and asteroid impact is most likely the only water there".
     He says the result is also consistent with the planet impact theory used to explain the Moon's formation.
     "[The Moon] lost all the original water which evaporated away during impact and so couldn't condense," says Ireland.
     He says it also tells us more about the origin of water on our own planet. "Water on Earth probably also came later from continual bombardment of comet and meteoritic bodies from elsewhere in the early solar system."
     The EArth/Moon system formed as a double planet.
   • COMET SWARM DELIVERED EARTH'S OCEANS? - August 5, 2009
     A barrage of comets may have delivered Earth's oceans around 3.85 billion years ago, a new study suggests.
     Scientists have long suspected that Earth and its near neighbors were walloped by tens of thousands of impactors during an ancient event known as the Late Heavy Bombardment.
   • COMETS SEEDED EARTH'S EARLY ATMOSPHERE - July 01, 2009
     The ratio of nitrogen isotopes in several comets almost exactly matches the ratio on Earth, implying that our early atmosphere probably came from a cometary bombardment.
     Their conclusion is that "no more than a few percent of Earth's water can be attributed to comets."
     But that's not the end of the story. Interestingly, they say that the ratio of nitrogen-14 to nitrogen-15 in cyanide and hydrogen cyanide in comets almost exactly matches that on Earth. "A significant part of Earth's atmospheric nitrogen might come from comets," they conclude.
     That's any exciting result because it implies a dual origin for our oceans and atmosphere.
     Of course, the huge fly in this hypothetical ointment is that there may well be other types of comet out there that have hydrogen to deuterium ratios as well as nitrogen isotope ratios that more closely match our own.
     But in the meantime, the idea that comets gave us our early atmosphere is cool enough to keep us a-wonderin' for a while.
   • CELLS FROM INDIA'S RED RAIN OF 2001 MULTIPLY UNDER EXTREME HEAT - AND THEY DON'T CONTAIN DNA. - September 03, 2010
     ...in July 2001, the rain turned red in India.And not just red - The Hindu claimed witness reports of yellow, green and black rain in the months that followed.The first theories to emerge was that it was simply sand or dust picked up from a desert, but a local physicist, Godfrey Louis, found that under a microscope, the water contained cells that looked like bugs.Five years later, he published a theory suggesting the bugs that turned the rain red in India may have come from a comet that exploded above the Earth and seeded clouds.Today, after a further four years of studying the cells, joined by a leading panspermia theorist from the UK, Chandra Wickramasinghe, Professor Lewis has published claims that they are unlike anything found on Earth.He says the cells - inert at room temperature - begin to reproduce at 121C.Within two hours of being exposed to the heat, "daughter cells appear within the original mother cells and the number of cells in the samples increases with length of exposure", they say in the new report.
   • (4) DOES PANSPERMIA ACCOUNT FOR RED RAINFALL IN INDIA?
   • (6) THE PANSPERMIA THEORY ACCORDING TO HOYLE & WICKRAMASINGHE
     Main Points Of Theory
     • Life on Earth which first appeared about 4000 million years ago, at a time when the planet was being severely bombarded by comets and asteroids, could not have started on Earth
     • Life in the form of bacteria and viruses were brought to Earth by comets, which were the sites where they multiplied (in warm watery interiors), and which acted as vehicles of transport
     • Microorganisms continue to arrive at the Earth even today, being included in the 100 tons or so of cometary debris that enters the Earth on a daily basis
     • The continued arrival of cometary bacteria and viruses contributes to the evolution of species through geological time
     • Interactions of present day life forms on Earth (including) humans with cometary bacteria and viruses could lead to epidemic disease
     • Astronomical evidence is fully consistent with the occurrence of microorganisms on a cosmic scale......
   • SCIENTISTS FIND SECRET OF LIFE... IN THE STARS
     "So what we have here is an example of how impact events can create a habitat for life and not merely act as agents of destruction," he said.
   • (5) COMETARY ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE - 1999 Icarus 146: (2) 313-325
     Most of the biosphere was brought on the primitive Earth by an intense bombardment of comets. This included the atmosphere, the seawater and those volatile carbon compounds needed for the emergence of life.
   • AN ARGUMENT FOR THE COMETARY ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE
     The evidence suggests that a rain of comets brought the Earth its water, its organic molecules and its atmosphere—key ingredients for life’s beginning
   • (7) ON THE POSSIBLE EXTRATERRESTRIAL INFLUENCE ON EARTH'S CLIMATE & THE ORIGIN OF THE OCEANS
     Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 1999, Vol.146, No.1-4, pp.33- 51
     The total extraterrestrial influx rate may be four to five orders of magnitude greater than previously thought, large enough to account for today's total near-surface inventories of water and carbon.
   • DID COMETS FLOOD EARTH'S OCEANS?
     Rosetta, Philae and Ptolemy will either solve one scientific mystery, or open another whole set of new ones.
   • (8) COMETARY ORIGIN OF SEA WATER PLANETARY AND SPACE SCIENCE, 1999, Vol.47, No.1-2, pp.125-131
     The deuterium enrichment of seawater is quantitatively consistent with its origin from a cometary bombardment of the primitive Earth.
   • (10) COMETARY TRAVEL: FROM INTERSTELLAR SPACE TO EARTH'S OCEANS Icarus, 1999, Vol.140, No.2, pp.446-450
     The HDO/H2O ratio in Earth's oceans suggests that the water was delivered by both comets and rocky material formed in Earth's region of the solar nebula.
   • (10) COMETARY TRAVEL: FROM INTERSTELLAR SPACE TO EARTH'S OCEANS Icarus, 1999, Vol.140, No.2, pp.446-450
     The HDO/H2O ratio in Earth's oceans suggests that the water was delivered by both comets and rocky material formed in Earth's region of the solar nebula.
   • IMPACT DELIVERY OF EARLY OCEANS 4.5 and 3.5 billion years ago, when bombardment of the inner solar system was thought to be especially severe. Rather than the expected net loss, the earth seems to have gained more than 0.2 - 0.7 ocean masses in that period. See this site's ASTRONOMICAL INFORMATION FROM NORMAL SOURCES in the 1997 Paper
   • AN ARGUMENT FOR THE COMETARY ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE The evidence suggests that a rain of comets brought the Earth its water, its organic molecules and its atmosphere-key ingredients for life’s beginnings ( as proposed in the 1997 Paper)
   • SCIENTISTS REPORT 'ALIEN' LIFE - 22 November 2000
     Researchers said that in the filter of a high-flying balloon operated by the Indian Space Research Organization, they found a strain of bacteria unlike anything on Earth. The bacteria were found at an altitude of 10 miles and scientists from the ISRO, Cardiff University and the University of Wales College of Medicine said it may have come from a comet on a close approach to earth, according to the Daily Mail. Prof. Chandra Wickramasinghe, who is based at Cardiff University, said the discovery marked "the first time we have had direct evidence for the hypothesis that comets seed life on other planets."
   • INTERNATIONAL GEOSPHERE-BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME - IGBP Science No. 3
   • ANOMALOUS HIGH ALTITUDE LUMINOSITY (AHAL)
     When meteors plunge into the earth's upper atmosphere, friction with the air causes them to incandesce and burn up. The smaller ones are completely consumed. A few bigger ones reach earth and are renamed "meteorites." So far, all of this is well-understood. But when meteors begin to burn up much above 100 kilometers, a problem arises. The air there is normally much too thin to cause incandescence and burn-up. LAYERS OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
     Meteors burn up in the mesosphere.
     The Mesosphere:
     In the Earth's mesosphere, the air masses are relatively mixed together and the temperature decreases with altitude. Atmospheric temperatures reach the lowest average value of around -90°C in the mesosphere. This is also the layer in which a lot of meteors burn up while entering the Earth's atmosphere.
     The mesosphere extends from the top of the stratosphere (the stratopause, located at about 50 kilometers) to an altitude of about 90 kilometers. Upper reaches of the atmosphere, such as the mesosphere, can sometimes be detected by looking at the limb of a planet.
6. PREHISTORIC STRIKES
   • FRAGMENT OF THE ASTEROID THAT KILLED OFF THE DINOSAURS MAY HAVE BEEN FOUND - May 11, 2022
     A tiny fragment of the asteroid that hit Earth 66 million years ago may have been found encased in amber -- a discovery NASA has described as "mind-blowing."
     It's one of several astounding finds at a unique fossil site in the Hell Creek Formation in North Dakota that has preserved remnants of the cataclysmic moment that ended the dinosaur era -- a turning point in the history of the planet.
   • DINOSAURS’ LAST SPRING: GROUNDBREAKING STUDY PINPOINTS TIMING OF CHICXULUB ASTEROID IMPACT - Dec 12, 2021
     The unique structure and pattern of the growth lines in fossil fish bones from the site, similar to a barcode, showed that all of the examined fish died during the spring-summer growth phase. High-tech isotopic analysis of the growth lines provided independent confirmation of this, showing a yearly oscillation that also terminated during the spring-summer growth.
     The team further supported their findings by overlaying multiple additional lines of evidence. Examination of juvenile fossil fish was supported in part by cutting-edge Synchrotron-Rapid-Scanning X-Ray Fluorescence (SRS-XRF) carried out at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL), providing a novel way of seasonally dating the deposit.
     Comparing the sizes of the youngest fish to modern growth rates enabled the team to predict how long after hatching the fish were buried. Comparing this to known modern spawning seasons enabled them to deduce what seasonal range was represented by the deposit at Tanis – spring to summer, just as indicated by the bones.
   • COMET FROM EDGE OF SOLAR SYSTEM KILLED DINOSAURS REVEALS STUDY - May 23, 2021
     A pair of astronomers at Harvard say they have now resolved long- standing mysteries surrounding the nature and origin of the Chicxulub impactor
     Their analysis suggests it was a comet that originated in a region of icy debris on the edge of the solar system, that Jupiter was responsible for it crashing into our planet, and that we can expect similar impacts every 250 million to 750 million years. The duo’s paper, published in the journal Scientific Reports this week, pushes back against an older theory that claims the object was a fragment of an asteroid that came from our solar system’s Main Belt
   • THE SCIENCE OF WHY AN ASTEROID, NOT A COMET, WIPED OUT THE DINOSAURS - May 18, 2021
     There are four main pieces of evidence that one has to account for when it comes to the mass extinction event from ~66 million years ago.
     • The extinction of well over 50% of marine and land species of plants and animals all in a very short time window.
     • The size, magnitude, and distribution of the layer of clay and ash found around the globe, including the abundance of the various rare elements discovered.
     • The energy that must have been deposited by an impactor to cause the formation of Chicxulub crater.
     • And the frequency of how often asteroids vs. comets are expected to fulfill these three earlier criteria, to help compute which one is more likely than the other.
     A large impact of either a comet or asteroid could have caused this extinction. Either one, if large enough, would be capable of kicking up enormous amounts of material that changed the global climate and led to the decline and fall of many species. Because comets typically originate from farther out than asteroids do, they move at faster speeds when they cross Earth’s orbit: a comet would only need to be about ~7 kilometers in diameter to impact Earth with enough energy to create Chicxulub crater, while an asteroid would need to be a larger ~10 kilometers across.
     The most important thing is that we all learn what the correct scientific conclusion to draw is, and why. The impact event that occurred 66 million years ago was due to an asteroid, not an object with comet-like properties. We know this based on many reasons, including the very compelling chemical composition of the impactor, retrieved from Chicxulub crater and matched up with the layer of ash and clay found worldwide at the appropriate depth within sedimentary rock. A comet simply has the wrong properties, and the earlier study that claimed otherwise wasn't just in error, but contained a series of unacceptably gross errors that should have resulted in the paper's rejection.
   • * HARVARD PROFESSOR DISPUTES THEORY BEHIND ORIGIN OF DINOSAUR-KILLING ASTEROID - 17.02.2021
   • ASTEROID THAT SLAMMED INTO EARTH 66 MILLION YEARS AGO DID WIPE OUT THE DINOSAURS WHILE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS FROM THE DECCAN TRAPS HELPED LIFE RECOVER, STUDY SHOWS - Jun 30, 2020
     Temperatures dropped, acid rain fell and the sun was blocked out for months - causing the extinction of 90 per cent of plants and 70 per cent of animals.
     The team combined geological markers of climate and mathematical models with the rainfall and temperature each dinosaur species needed to thrive.
     They were then able to map where these conditions would still exist in a world after either an asteroid strike or massive volcanism.
     Only the asteroid strike wiped out all potential habitats - while volcanism left some viable regions around the equator, the team discovered from their models.
   • WHAT REALLY HAPPENED WHEN THE 'DINO-KILLER' ASTEROID STRUCK - 18 Oct 2016
     Much like putting in all the edge pieces of a jigsaw, scientists have outlined the lasting impacts of the meteor strike. It claimed the lives of more than three-quarters of the animal and plant species on Earth. The most famous casualties were the dinosaurs - although in fact many of them survived in the form of birds.
     Then in 1991, geologists discovered the impact site: a crater 180km (110 miles) across on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. They named it Chicxulub, after the nearest town.
     The asteroid seared through the sky at more than 40 times the speed of sound and slammed into the Earth's crust. It produced an explosion equivalent to 100 trillion tons of TNT, roughly seven billion times as powerful as the Hiroshima bomb.
     The plunge into the Earth's crust sent shock waves across the landscape.
     Tsunamis between 100 and 300m high surged across the Gulf of Mexico and ripped up the seafloor down to depths of 500m. Magnitude-10 earthquakes destroyed the coastline and the radiating air blast flattened any forests within thousands of kilometres. Finally, tons of rock showered from the sky, burying any remaining life.
     "Basically you are looking at a 10km-diameter bullet," Johnson says. "The physics is just extraordinary. You get just this incredible explosion, incredible earthquakes, incredible tsunamis, and then anywhere within several hundred kilometres of the site you have building-size blocks raining down on the landscape."
     But these regional impacts alone did not cause the global mass extinction.
     The plume spread east and west until it enveloped the entire Earth. Then, still gravitationally bound to the planet, it rained back down into the atmosphere.
     As it cooled, it condensed into trillions of quarter-millimetre droplets of glass. These shot down towards the Earth's surface at about the same entry speed as the space shuttle, heating the upper atmosphere so much that, in some places, land plants caught fire.
     "The incandescent heat from re-entering ejecta created a broiler-oven effect on the planet," Johnson says. "So then you just have a furnace."
     
   • * DINOSAUR DOOMSDAY ASTEROID HIT EARTH WITH A FORCE EQUIVALENT TO 10 BILLION ATOMIC BOMBS - Sep 9, 2019
     When the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs slammed into the planet, the impact set wildfires, triggered tsunamis and blasted so much sulfur into the atmosphere that it blocked the sun, which caused the global cooling that ultimately doomed the dinos.
     That’s the scenario scientists have hypothesized. Now, a new study led by The University of Texas at Austin has confirmed it by finding hard evidence in the hundreds of feet of rocks that filled the impact crater within the first 24 hours after impact.
     This is an artist's interpretation of the asteroid impact. The asteroid in the artwork appears much larger than the six-mile rock that scientists hypothesize actually struck the Earth 66 million years ago. Nevertheless, the image nicely illuminates the heat generated as the asteroid rapidly compresses upon impact and the vacuum in its wake.
     Most of the material that filled the crater within hours of impact was produced at the impact site or was swept in by seawater pouring back into the crater from the surrounding Gulf of Mexico. Just one day deposited about 425 feet of material - a rate that’s among the highest ever encountered in the geologic record. This breakneck rate of accumulation means that the rocks record what was happening in the environment within and around the crater in the minutes and hours after impact and give clues about the longer-lasting effects of the impact that wiped out 75% of life on the planet.
     Gulick described it as a short-lived inferno at the regional level, followed by a long period of global cooling.
   • * VOLCANIC ERUPTION IN ASIA TRIGGERED SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION ON EARTH, NEW STUDY CLAIMS - 11.09.2019
     "It is crucial that we know the number of severe mass extinctions and their timing in order to investigate their causes", a professor at New York University's Department of Biology, Michael Rampino, wrote in the journal Historical Biology.
   • * RESEARCHERS REVEAL HOTTEST TEMPERATURE ON EARTH WAS CAUSED BY ANCIENT METEOR - 19.09.2017
   • DINOSAUR-KILLING ASTEROID SOOT COULD HAVE PLUNGED EARTH INTO 2 YEARS OF DARKNESS - August 24, 2017
   • * THE OLDEST ICE CORE EVER DISCOVERED REVEALS CO2 LEVELS OF MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO - August 17, 2017
   • AMERICA ICE AGE - July 6, 2016
   • SCIENTISTS SAY THEY HAVE FOUND EVIDENCE A GIANT ASTEROID HIT EARTH 3 BILLION YEARS AGO - May 17th, 2016
   • A NEW ?3.46 GA ASTEROID IMPACT EJECTA UNIT AT MARBLE BAR, PILBARA CRATON, WESTERN AUSTRALIA: A PETROLOGICAL, MICROPROBE AND LASER ABLATION ICPMS STUDY - Volume 279, July 2016
   • LARGEST-EVER METEORITE CRATER FOUND IN AUSTRALIAN OUTBACK - 23 Mar 2015
   • METEORITE TURNED EARTH INSIDE OUT
     A devastating meteorite collision caused part of the Earth's crust to flip inside out billions of years ago and left a dusting of a rare metal scattered on the top of the crater, says new University of Toronto research. This has been suggested for the Moon at times in the past but ours is the first observational evidence that this process has operated on Earth. Vulcan, over the years, has drawn many Kuiper belt bodies into 3:2 resonate orbits which pass through the inner solar system. One in a while, large ones are drawn in and they crumble rounding the Sun. Large fragments of one of these striking Earth initiated the Pleistocene (Ice Ages) and big pieces of it are still around to threaten Earth.
   • ASTEROID IMPACT COULD HAVE STIRRED THE OCEAN
     Model offers one explanation for sudden change in deep-ocean chemistry almost 2 billion years ago.
     About 1.85 billion years ago, Earth’s now separate landmasses were joined in a single supercontinent. That also means there was one large ocean, says Cannon. Many scientists suggest that the object that slammed into Earth then — probably an asteroid abut 10 kilometers across — splashed down in that ocean, in waters about 1 kilometer deep on the shallow shelf surrounding the upper continent. Models hint that the tsunami spawned by the event would have been 1 kilometer tall at the impact site and remained at least 100 meters tall about 3,000 kilometers away, Cannon adds.
   • ANCIENT IMPACT TURNED PART OF EARTH INSIDE-OUT
     A space rock the size of a large mountain hit 1.8 billion years ago and dredged up part of Earth's lower crust, essentially turning a bit of the planet inside out, a new study concludes.
     It appears an asteroid about 6 miles (10 kilometers) wide hit the planet at more than 89,000 mph (40 kilometers per second).
   • COULD THE CZECH BASIN HAVE BEEN CREATED THROUGH METEORITIC IMPACT?
     This week the Czech newsmagazine Tyden reported on a theory that the so-called Czech basin, or massif, which makes up most of Bohemia, may have been created by a meteorite hitting the area around 2 billion years ago.
   • 1.85 BILLION YEAR OLD METEORITE DEBRIS FOUND IN MN
     In a spot he had never visited, with fire in three directions, Jirsa found evidence of a cataclysm that probably no one but a geologist would have noticed -- debris from the Sudbury impact.
     That blast created a crater more than 150 miles across, scattering rock and dust over nearly a million square miles.
     "It's fairly dark rock," Jirsa said. "They look like concrete, but in this concrete you would throw pieces of rock of all sizes and shapes and in all possible orientations."
     The rock includes balls the size and shape of a large taconite pellet which Jirsa believes formed in the impact's huge, hot cloud of dust, much as hailstones form in a storm cloud.
   • PREHISTORIC ASTEROID "KILLED EVERYTHING"
     This cataclysm some 3.5 billion years ago is the earliest known meteor strike to hit the Earth, and one of at least four that have been identified in a geologically brief 300-million-year period.
     It seems like the Vulcan induced comet swarms say around for several million years rather that the few hundred thousand year estimates. This is consistent with the Pliocene to Pleistocene transition and the reformation of Venus's surface by related impacts a few million years ago. Those swarms are likely still with us!
   • ANCIENT METEORITE LEAVES TELLTALE TRACES
     The first convincing evidence of a massive meteorite impact that occurred 2.63 billion years ago has been found in northwestern Australia's Pilbara region.
   • THAW POINT: 'SNOWBALL EARTH' WAS MORE LIKE A SLUSHBALL
     Instead of "Snowball Earth," the planet really became "Slushball Earth," its authors suggest.
     The great chill -- the longest and deepest ice age in Earth's known history -- happened during the late Neoproterozoic era, 850 to 542 million years ago.
     The evidence for the Snowball thesis comes from deep sediments in the ocean.
   • EARTH REALLY WAS ONE BIG SNOWBALL
     The "Snowball Earth" theory claims that our planet was entirely frozen over about 630 million years ago. Most geoscientists agree that the Earth cooled significantly at that time, but some favour a "Slushball Earth" scenario in which equatorial oceans did not freeze.
     researchers found a sharp spike in iridium levels in the cores that date to the end of the cooling period, favouring the snowball theory. The size of the spike suggests a global glaciation lasting between 3 and 12 million years
   • STUDY CASTS DOUBT ON 'SNOWBALL EARTH' THEORY
   • AGE OF DINOSAURS BEGAN WITH COMET IMPACT
   • CHICXULUB IMPACT CRATER AND THE K/T MASS EXTINCTION, REVISITED
     The new evidence from Yaxcopoil-1, combined with the spherule ejecta evidence from NE Mexico, indicates that the Chicxulub impact predated the KT boundary by about 300k y. Chicxulub therefore was not the cause for the KT mass extinction. The KT impact crater still remains to be found.
   • NEW EVIDENCE SHOWS A DIFFERENT METEOR KILLED DINOSAURS
     Her team concluded that there was a gap of some 300,000 years between the deposition of the spherules (from the Chicxulub crater) and the iridium (from an asteroid). Therefore, there must have been two impacts.
   • SHIVA CRATER
   • Were The Dinosaurs Killed By A Comet? Researchers Says Smaller, Faster Space Rock Sparked Mass Extinction - 22 March 2013
     • Study claims there's not enough debris to account for massive asteroid
     • For a smaller rock to cause such a huge crater it would have to be faster
     • Long-period comets hurtling in from outer space fit the bill, it is claimed
   • DON'T BLAME ASTEROID: NASA - September 21, 2011
     While a member of the Baptistina family of asteroids has been ruled out as a culprit, scientists remain confident it was a large asteroid crashing to Earth about 65 million years ago that marked the end of the dinosaurs. But just where the asteroid came from remains a mystery.
     ''The demise of the dinosaurs remains in the cold case files,'' Dr Johnson said.
     It was a comet collision that killed the dinosaurs
   • ASTEROIDS IMPLICATED IN DINO DEATHS NOT GUILTY AFTER ALL - 20 September 2011
   • ANCIENT IMPACT KILLED OFF BIRDS TOO - Sept. 19, 2011
   • MASS EXTINCTION CAUSED BY DEADLY 'EARTH BURP' - July 21, 2011
     
   • THE END OF THE WORLD MIGHT JUST LOOK LIKE THIS - July 18, 2013
     Artist Ron Miller illustrates what it might look like if an asteroid the size of the one that struck the Yucatan peninsula 65 million years ago, which left a 93- mile-wide crater and most likely triggered the extinction of the dinosaurs, hit New Jersey.
   • THE DINOSAURS GOT A WARNING SHOT
     BBC report suggesting that not one but two impacts in quick succession doomed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago
     One was the giant, now-famous pounding called Chicxulub that gouged out a crater 110 miles (180 km) wide in what's now the Yucatán Peninsula. The other was a smaller crater named Boltysh, only 16 miles (24 km) across, in central Ukraine.
     Instead, in the August issue of Geology, David Jolley (King's College, Scotland) and four colleagues describe what they found after drilling deep into the sediments that now fill the crater's floor. It turns out that ferns and flowering plants had just begun to flourish in the region's recovering ecosystem — only 2,000 to 5,000 years after the impact — when they were wiped out by the aftermath of Chicxulub's much-bigger blast.
     Instead, Jolley and his team (which includes Gurov and Kelley) suggest that something must have stirred up the asteroid belt enough to redirect multiple large bodies Earth's way. Perhaps two large asteroids collided about that time, spraying a shower of fragments throughout the inner solar system, or maybe a clutch of asteroids were yanked into Earth-crossing orbits due to a gravitational resonance with Jupiter.
     Note that the Vulcan induced comet swarm period averages 3313 years. See: VULCAN'S PERIOD FROM COMET STRIKE DATES
   • CAMBRIDGE CONFERENCE CORRESPONDENCE - 19 Sep 2002
     (8) RE: MULTIPLE COMETARY IMPACTS AT K/T TIME.
     I would like to comment on the interesting announcement of the Boltysh crater as of pre-K/T age and the inference of multiple cometary impacts. We also found evidence of multiple cometary impacts, but this evidence suggests that Chicxulub may predate the K/T bondary and that the boundary impact event has yet to be found.
     There is currently strong evidence for three impact events at the K/T transition: one at 65.3 Ma (spherule layers, possibly Chixculub), one at the K/T boundary (ir anomlay), and one in the early Danian P. eugubina zone about 100 kyr after the K/T boundary (Ir anomaly).
   • DID A COMET SWARM KILL THE DINOSAURS?
     A gravitational disturbance in the Oort Cloud or Kuiper Belt, the massive comet reservoirs found at the outer reaches of our solar system, could dispatch a swarm of dirty snowballs inward toward the Sun, and therefore Earth. That gravitational disturbance was caused by Vulcan.
     and
     (8) RE: MULTIPLE COMETARY IMPACTS AT K/T TIME
     See: CS - early/94: On one occasion, 14 comets struck earth and comet caused the death of the dinosaurs. The largest was 18 miles in diameter.
   • DOUBLE METEORITE STRIKE 'CAUSED DINOSAUR EXTINCTION' - 27 August 2010
     Previously, scientists had identified a huge impact crater in the Gulf of Mexico as the event that spelled doom for the dinosaurs.
     This raises the possibility that the Earth may have been bombarded by a whole shower of meteorites.
     Now evidence for a second impact in Ukraine has been uncovered.
     This raises the possibility that the Earth may have been bombarded by a whole shower of meteorites
   • DINOSAURS 'WIPED OUT BY METEOR SHOWER LASTING THOUSANDS OF YEARS' - 30 Aug 2010
     The researchers found a second “fern spike” one meter above the first in the Boltysh crater – suggesting that two separate strikes occurred thousands of years apart.
     He continued: "It is quite possible that in the future we will find evidence for more impact events."
   • COULD MULTIPLE METEOR IMPACTS HAVE KILLED THE DINOSAURS?
     Rather than a single meteorite impact 65 million years ago, could Earth have been hit with a scattershot of several rocks from space? It may have happened before. There is evidence that about 35 million years ago, at least five comets or asteroids collided with Earth. If the effects of a single large meteorite impact seem overwhelming, imagine how life on Earth would reel from a barrage of rocks from space.
   • DOUBLE TROUBLE: WHAT REALLY KILLED THE DINOSAURS
     Instead of being driven to extinction by death from above, dinosaurs might have ultimately been doomed by death from below in the form of monumental volcanic eruptions. The suggestion is based on new research that is part of a growing body of evidence indicating a space rock alone did not wipe out the giant reptiles.
     Another leading culprit is a series of colossal volcanic eruptions that occurred between 63 million to 67 million years ago. These created the gigantic Deccan Traps lava beds in India, whose original extent may have covered as much as 580,000 square miles (1.5 million square kilometers), or more than twice the area of Texas.
     Now research suggests the mass extinction happened at or just after the biggest phase of the Deccan eruptions, which spewed 80 percent of the lava found at the Deccan Traps."It's the first time we can directly link the main phase of the Deccan Traps to the mass extinction," said Princeton University paleontologist Gerta Keller.
     Keller stressed these findings do not deny that an impact occurred around the K- T boundary, and noted that one or possibly several impacts may have had a hand in the mass extinction. "The dinosaurs might have faced an unfortunate coincidence of a one-two punch—of Deccan volcanism and then a hit from space," she explained. "We just show the Deccan eruptions might have had a significant impact—no pun intended."
     First came the comet impact(s), and it(they) set off volcanic activiaty.
   • A VOLCANIC DINOSAUR DEBATE
     At least 50 percent of the world's species, including the dinosaurs, perished 65 million years ago. A large meteorite struck Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula around the same time, and most scientists blame this impact for the mass extinction.
   • EVER HEARD OF THE KENTLAND CRATER? - 14 June 2009
     Several years ago-well, about 65 to 97 million years ago - a gigantic meteorite struck the earth just east of present-day Kentland in northwestern Indiana’s Benton County.
     How big was the meteorite? The best guess is that it or perhaps it was a comet ice mass left a circular crater dome measuring about 4 ½ miles in diameter. The entire “disturbed area” is about eight miles in diameter.
     It became what modern-day meteorologists and geologists call the Kentland Crater, the fourth largest known impact site in the United States.
   • AUSTRALIAN SCIENTISTS FIND TIMOR SEA METEORITE CRATER 19 May 2010
     Australian scientists have discovered a crater deep beneath the Timor Sea made during a heavy meteor storm which may have altered the Earth's climate
     "The identification of microstructural and chemical features in drill fragments taken from the Mount Ashmore drill hole revealed evidence of a significant impact," Glikson said, adding it was at least 50 kilometres (31 miles) wide and about 35 million years old.
     A meteorite 100 kilometres wide hit Siberia at the same time, along with an 85 km one in Chesapeake Bay, off the US coast of Virginia, followed by a large field of molten rock fragments over northeast America, he said.
     "This defined a major impact cluster across the planet,"
   • DID MULTIPLE IMPACTS PUMMEL EARTH 35 MILLION YEARS AGO
     Rather than a single meteorite impact 65 million years ago, could Earth have been hit with a scattershot of several rocks from space? It may have happened before.
     There is evidence that about 35 million years ago, at least five comets or asteroids collided with Earth. If the effects of a single large meteorite impact seem overwhelming, imagine how life on Earth would reel from a barrage of rocks from space.
   • MYSTERY MINERALS FORMED IN DINOSAUR-DESTROYING ASTEROID FIREBALL
   • (1) NEW THEORY ON DINOSAURS: MULTIPLE IMPACT DID THEM IN or NEW THEORY ON DINOSAURS: MULTIPLE METEORITES DID THEM IN
     The discoveries are giving new support to the idea that killer objects from outer space may have sometimes arrived in pairs or even swarms, perhaps explaining why the extinctions seen in the fossil record can be messy affairs, with species reeling before a final punch finishes them off.
     In the U.K., we have a phrase, `You wait an hour for a bus, then three come along all at once,' " he remarked in an interview. "Maybe impacts are like that."
   • DID A GIANT METEOR KILL DINOSAURS?
   • THE ASTEROID WAS INNOCENT, SAYS DINO STUDY
     Chicxulub might have played a role in "softening" the dinos, he said, after which they may have never quite recovered. The second, still undiscovered, impactor might have been the terminal blow.
   • LARGEST EVER FIELD OF IMPACT CRATERS UNCOVERED
     Paillou estimates that it is roughly 50 million years old, relatively young in geological terms
   • HUGE CRATERS CONFIRM METEORITE IMPACT ON EARTH!
     The structures turned out to be part of a huge field of 100 craters spread over 5000 square kilometres near the Gilf Kebir plateau. The craters vary in diameter from 20 metres to 2 kilometres across. The previous largest known crater field covers a mere 60 square kilometres in Argentina.
     The size of the field suggests that it could be the result of two or more meteors disintegrating as they entered Earth's atmosphere, the first evidence of a multiple strike, he says.
   • DINOSAUR EXTINCTION THEORY 'A MYTH' or DINOSAUR DEATH THEORY 'JUST A MYTH'
     The team suggests a more complex series of events such as an additional asteroid impact, perhaps in the Shiva Crater in India, volcanism, and climate change.
   • DID BEES SURVIVE WHEN DINOSAURS COULDN'T?
     The reign of tropical honeybees may have outlasted the great dinosaur age, and if true, the clue may raise questions about whether a single, cataclysm really took the Earth into a prolonged winter. One paleontologist looks not to what died, but what survived the events from 65 million years ago. Maybe it was a series of comet collisions.
   • DAY FROM HELL MAY HAVE KILLED OFF DINOSAURS
     Earth's temperatures soared, the sky turned red and trees all over the planet burst into flames, said atmospheric physicist Brian Toon of the University of Colorado.
   • PREHISTORIC ASTEROID "KILLED EVERYTHING
     This cataclysm some 3.5 billion years ago is the earliest known meteor strike to hit the Earth. There was almost certainly life at this time. Primitive, bacterial life, and if the impacts were made by a meteor 20 miles in diameter, they would have killed everything on the surface of the Earth,"
   • DINOSAURS FRIED WITHIN HOURS OF COSMIC COLLISION
   • DINO IMPACT GAVE EARTH THE CHILL
     The global winter was probably caused by a pollutant cloud of sulphate particles released when the asteroid vaporized rocks at Chicxulub, Mexico.
   • SCIENTISTS SAY METEORITE HIT WISCONSIN
     They believe they have finally solved the puzzle: A 650- to 700-foot meteorite crashed into the earth at speeds up to 67,500 mph. The impact 450 million years ago dislodged rocks and created a massive hole in a 4-mile area called Rock Elm about 70 miles east of Minneapolis.
   • (2) CATACLYSMIC METEOR SWAMPED NOVA SCOTIA
     A giant meteor hurtled from the sky 50 million years ago, punching a huge crater in the ocean floor off Nova Scotia. The impact created a tidal wave five times as high as Fenwick Tower that rolled over the entire province.
     The meteor was moving at 20,000 kilometres per hour when it splashed into the sea. About two kilometres in diameter, the space rock steamed through the seawater and slammed into the Earth's crust 250 kilometres south of Shelburne, creating a hole 40 kilometres across.
   • (2) "IMPROBABILITY" OF OBLIQUE-ANGLE IMPACTS The most likely impact angle is therefore 45 degrees (forget all those pictures with asteroids descending vertically).
     
     (3) COSMIC IMPACTS IMPLICATED IN BOTH THE RISE AND FALL OF DINOSAURS "Our research adds to the speculation that there was a comet or asteroid impact about 200 million years ago, followed relatively quickly by the rising dominance of dinosaur populations of the Jurassic period," said Kent.
   • DINO HEAT WAVE RECORDED IN LEAVES
     The researchers say analysis of fossil leaves from 65 million years ago shows there was a sudden and dramatic rise in carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. Only the impact of a large asteroid, vaporizing billions of tones of limestone rocks, could have released so much gas so quickly into the environment, they believe.
   • (5) ASTEROID IMPACT TIED TO RISE OF DINOSAURS Scientists have long suspected that an asteroid led to the demise of dinosaurs' 65 million years ago. Research last year suggested that an earlier impact 251 million years ago might have allowed dinosaurs to evolve in the first place.
   • LOW OXYGEN LIKELY MADE 'GREAT DYING' WORSE, GREATLY DELAYED RECOVERY
     The biggest mass extinction in Earth history some 251 million years ago was preceded by elevated extinction rates before the main event and was followed by a delayed recovery that lasted for millions of years.
   • COSMIC COLLISION MAY HAVE CREATED HAWAII
   • (4) HAWAII, TOMBSTONE OF THE DINOSAURS
   • MOTION OF THE HAWAIIAN HOTSPOT: A PALEOMANGETIC TEST
   • (11) THE BREAK-UP OF PANGEA - 01 February 2001
     Just as reported in the February 1997 Paper.
   • IMPACT CRATER BENEATH LAKE HURON blasted by a meteorite at least 500 million years ago
   • (6) TINY TEETH SHED LIGHT ON ANCIENT COMET - 23 March 1998
     Minuscule fossil animal teeth, known as conodonts, indicate that a 370-million-year-old comet that slammed into Nevada could be as much as five times larger than scientists initially suspected.
     "The crater left by the ancient Nevada comet is now interpreted to have been at least one mile deep and 45 miles wide. It is comparable in size to one that struck the Chesapeake Bay area about 35 million years ago. On the basis of this comparison, the Nevada comet could have been as large as three miles in diameter, much larger than our initial calculation of one kilometer. It may have been part of the first of a series of comet showers that led to a mass extinction of many forms of life three million years later."
   • DOUBLE WHAMMY: Asteroids Delivered One-Two Punch
     A pair of 35-million-year-old craters on Earth thought to have been carved by comets now appears to be the result of a broken asteroid that generated a slowly delivered shower of debris over millions of years. Asteroids are pretty tough and fracture with difficulty before they impact. Comets can have metal cores and this may be the source of the trace metals being found. Comets impact Earth commonly, asteroids only every hundred million years or so.
   • EVIDENCE FOR METEOR IN EARLY MASS EXTINCTION FOUND
     Ellwood and four other researchers have just published an article in the journal Science in which they tie an early mass extinction to a meteor strike. This extinction happened 380 million years ago in what is called the middle Devonian. It was a time when only small plants, wingless insects and spiders inhabited the land and everything else lived in the sea. About 40 percent of all species disappeared from the fossil record at this time.
     "We know that meteors have struck the Earth hundreds of times," Ellwood said. "If I had to guess, I would say that once every 5 million years a meteor big enough to cause a mass extinction hits the Earth.
     "We could protect ourselves if we wanted. We went to the moon, we can figure out how to destroy or deflect a meteor. All it takes is the political will -- and an awareness of the threat."
   • MASS EXTINCTION OF LIFE ON EARTH IN THE BLINK OF AN EYE - February 10, 2014
     The largest mass extinction in the history of animal life occurred some 252 million years ago, wiping out more than 96 percent of marine species and 70 percent of life on land — including the largest insects known to have inhabited the Earth. Multiple theories have aimed to explain the cause of what’s now known as the end-Permian extinction, including an asteroid impact, massive volcanic eruptions, or a cataclysmic cascade of environmental events. But pinpointing the cause of the extinction requires better measurements of how long the extinction period lasted.
     From their measurements, the researchers determined a much more precise “age model” for the end-Permian extinction, which now appears to have lasted about 60,000 years — with an uncertainty of 48,000 years — and was immediately preceded by a sharp increase in carbon dioxide in the oceans.
   • MASS EXTINCTION OF LIFE ON EARTH IN THE BLINK OF AN EYE - February 10, 2014
   • PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION - The Day the Earth Nearly Died - Jun 10, 2013
   • * MASS EXTINCTION WAS DUE TO AN ICE AGE, NOT WARMING - Mar7, 2017
     The Earth has known several mass extinctions over the course of its history. One of the most important happened at the Permian-Triassic boundary 250 million years ago. Over 95% of marine species disappeared and, up until now, scientists have linked this extinction to a significant rise in Earth temperatures. But researchers from the University of Geneva (UNIGE), Switzerland, working alongside the University of Zurich, discovered that this extinction took place during a short ice age which preceded the global climate warming. It’s the first time that the various stages of a mass extinction have been accurately understood and that scientists have been able to assess the major role played by volcanic explosions in these climate processes.
   • NASA FINDS MASSIVE ANOMALY IN ANTARCTICA, SPARKS CONSPIRACY THEORIES - 25.01.2019
     The scientists determined that their find was in fact a huge crater beneath the Wilkes Land ice sheet, likely created as a result of an asteroid impact millions of years ago which, according to a team of researchers led by Ralph von Frese and Laramie Potts of Ohio State University, might've been related to the Permian–Triassic extinction event – the most severe extinction event ever, known as the Great Dying.
   • TOOK 10 MILLION YEARS FOR LIFE ON EARTH TO ‘RE-SET’ AFTER MASS EXTINCTION. - May 29th, 2012
     More than 250 million years ago, most life on Earth was wiped out by a catastrophic event called the Permian–Triassic extinction. New research suggests it took our planet 10 million years to recover from what is now known as “The Great Dying.”
     The Great Dying took place millions of years earlier than the Cretaceous- Tertiary extinction, which killed off the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. It was also much more devastating, destroying 90 percent of all plants and animals.
   • GIANT CRATER FOUND: TIED TO WORST MASS EXTINCTION EVER - June 01, 2006
     An apparent crater as big as Ohio has been found in Antarctica. Scientists think it was carved by a space rock that caused the greatest mass extinction on Earth, 250 million years ago.
   • DID MAGNETIC BLIP TRIGGER MASS EXTINCTION?
     Rising hot material upset convection in Earth's core, says new theory
     More than 250 million years ago, a plume of super-hot material began rising through Earth's mantle, upsetting convection in the core and throwing the planet's magnetic field into disarray. That event may have caused one of the worst mass extinction events in the planet's history, leaving behind a barren volcanic wasteland something like this scene from modern-day Iceland.
     It was a dying on a scale never seen before or since on Earth. The slaughter was everywhere; the fertile ocean and balmy supercontinent Pangea were transformed into killing fields, littered with the bodies of ancient animals. By the time the dust had settled on the Permian-Triassic mass extinction 250 million years ago, 90 percent of life on the planet had been snuffed out.
     Now a new theory suggests the catastrophe was set in motion 15 million years earlier, deep in the Earth. On the edge of the molten outer core, a plume of super-hot material began rising through the mantle, upsetting convection in the core and throwing the planet's magnetic field into disarray.
     The weakening of Earth's magnetic field exposed the surface to a shower of cosmic radiation, says Yukio Isozaki of the University of Tokyo. He believes the radiation broke nitrogen in the atmosphere into ions that acted as seeds for clouds enshrouding the planet.
     The giant meteorite or comet impact that stimulated this event fractured the earth pole to pole and likely caused Iceland and the mid-Atlantic ridge. These are Kuiper belt objects, and there may have been multiple impacts around 250 million years ago.
   • MARINE ECOSYSTEMS HAVE CHANGED 250M YEARS AGO AT MASS EXTINCTION
     The earth experienced its biggest mass extinction about 250 million years ago, an event that wiped out an estimated 95% of marine species and 70% of land species. New research shows that this mass extinction did more than eliminate species: it fundamentally changed the basic ecology of the world's oceans.
   • GREATEST MASS EXTINCTION GAVE OCEANS A FACE LIFT
     Before the end-Permian mass extinction 250 million years ago, the seas were home to a balance of both ecologically simple communities and complex ones. Following the extinction, complex communities displaced simple ones, coming to outnumber them three-to-one, a pattern that prevails today.
   • BOOST TO CO2 MASS EXTINCTION IDEA
     A computer simulation of the Earth's climate 250 million years ago suggests that global warming triggered the so-called "great dying".
     A dramatic rise in carbon dioxide caused temperatures to soar to 10 to 30 degrees Celsius higher than today. The research adds to the growing body of evidence that higher temperatures, rather than a giant space rock hitting the planet, led to the greatest mass extinction in history.
     Impacts of metal core comets cause dramatic increases in Earth's temperature
   • NEW THEORY ON MASS EXTINCTION BLAMES SUDDEN DROP IN OXYGEN
     Researchers taking the pulse of Earth's worst mass extinction 250 million years ago say they have diagnosed the ailment that doomed most animals: altitude sickness.
   • GREAT EXTINCTION CAME IN PHASES - 1 April, 2005
     A joint UK-Chinese team tell Nature magazine the disaster that befell the planet 250 million years ago must have happened in phases. . . Their conclusion is based on the abundance of "organic fossils" found in rocks at Meishan in southern China. . . These suggest there were at least two episodes to the mass die-off that saw up to 95% of life forms disappear.
     More evidence of quasi-periodic comet swarms.
   • THE GREAT PERMIAN EXTINCTION DEBATE. 2004
     
     James A. Marusek, Impact, (e-mail: tunga@custom.net or marusek_j@crane.navy.mil)
     Paper by James A. Marusek, providing a hypothesis of the mechanisms behind the greatest mass extinction of life on Earth, the Permian extinction. The hypothesis is applicable to 5 of the 6 Great mass extinction events that occurred at the end of the Botomian, Devonian, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous Ages.
   • SPACE ROCK CAUSED 'GREAT DYING' 21 November, 2003
     About 250 million years ago, something unknown wiped out most of the life on the planet. It was far more devastating than the impact that ended the rule of the dinosaurs 65 million years. A geochemist at the University of Rochester, New York, believes the fragments date back to the Permian-Triassic period, 251 million years ago, when about 90% of marine life and 70% of land species vanished.
   • (7) KILLER CRATER FOUND - 19 April 2000
     Australian geologists have discovered the buried remains of an 80-mile wide impact crater that could be the culprit behind the worst extinction catastrophe in Earth's history.
     Although no precise age for the crater -- the fourth largest in the world -- has been determined yet, it appears to be 250-360 million years old, making it a possible source for the massive Permian-Triassic extinction event that wiped out almost all life on the planet 250 million years ago.As often happens, the comet round's the Sun often striking in the southern hemisphere.
   • MORE EVIDENCE FOR MASS EXTINCTION
     Lava flow twice the size of Europe covered Siberia 250 million years ago.
   • BOOST TO ASTEROID WIPE-OUT THEORY
     The 250-million-year-old Permo-Triassic extinction killed off 95% of all marine life and 70% of all land species. Six cores drilled from the Bedout area returned dates much younger than the extinction event. But one core returned a date of about 250.1 million years old - on the button for the mass extinction recorded in fossil beds around the world.
   • MORE EVIDENCE POINTS TO METEOR IN MASS EXTINCTION
   • SHADOW OF EXTINCTION Only six degrees centigrade separate our world from the cataclysmic end of an ancient era
     The events that brought the Permian period (between 286m and 251m years ago) to an end could not be clearly determined until the mapping of the key geological sequences had been completed. Altogether, some 90% of the earth's species appear to have been wiped out: this represents by far the gravest of the mass extinctions. We now know that the principal explosions took place 251 million years ago, precisely at the point at which life was almost extinguished. So how much warming took place? A sharp change in the ratio of the isotopes of oxygen permits us to reply with some precision: 6C.
   • PERMIAN CATASTROPHE COMET?
     Could such an event have led to the even greater extinctions that occurred during the Permian era 250 million years ago? New forensic evidence seems to point in that direction.
   • VOLCANOES BLAMED FOR WORST MASS EXTINCTION
   • LIFE SMOTHERED IN EARTH'S WORST EXTINCTION
   • VOLCANOES 'WIPED OUT LIFE ON EARTH, NOT GIANT ASTEROID'
     Meteorite impacts and volcanic eruptions often go hand in hand.
   • NEW CRATER FOUND DOWN UNDER - 21 April 2000
     A new crater, the world’s fourth-largest at 75 miles (120 kilometers) across, has been found in western Australia. Scientists believe the impact crater was caused by a 3-mile (5-kilometer) wide asteroid slamming into the area, causing a wave of extinction 200 million to 360 million years ago.
   • ABERDEEN TEAM UNEARTH ASTEROID CRASH
     His tests put its age at 214 million years and links the asteroid to a giant impact crater found in Manicouagan, north-east Canada. At the time Manicouagan would have been much closer to Britain than it is today. It is thought the object which caused the Manicouagan crater was a chunk of rock more than three miles wide.
   • IMPACT 'SHOWERED DEBRIS OVER BRITAIN'
     The space rock hit what is now Manicouagan, Quebec, opening up a 100-kilometre- wide (62-mile-wide) crater that can be seen by astronauts from space. The space body, about five km (three miles) wide, generated a shockwave 40 million times larger than the Hiroshima blast. The landscape 214 million years ago was very different to the rolling green fields of today.
   • PART OF THE DINOSAUR KILLER ASTEROID that struck earth 65 million years ago has been discovered. It has been confirmed to be part of an asteroid, not a comet, supporting the conclusions of Sir Fred Hoyle and the Bible Code. Also see this site's THE 2006 AND 2012 STRIKE DATES section of the 1999 Paper.
   • STRANGE CRATER FOUND UNDER THE SEA
     Rings created by ancient meteorite impact 65 million years ago, experts say
   • GIANT IMPACT-WAVE DEPOSIT ALONG U.S. EAST COAST 35.5 million years ago.
   • WELL-PRESERVED LAYER OF MATERIAL EJECTED FROM CHESAPEAKE BAY METEOR-STRIKE DISCOVERED
     The impact in the Chesapeake Bay clearly caused a huge amount of material, both from the Earth and the asteroid, to become airborne, and the layer -- discovered at a depth of 25 feet in the kaolin mine - was probably laid down by the event. It was an active time: In the period between 34 million and 37 million years ago, at least five comets and/or asteroids collided with the Earth.
   • ASTEROIDS CAUSED THE EARLY INNER SOLAR SYSTEM CATACLYSM
     Ancient main belt asteroids identical in size to present-day asteroids in the Mars-Jupiter belt -- not comets -- hammered the inner rocky planets in a unique catastrophe that lasted for a blink of geologic time, anywhere from 20 million to 150 million years, they report in the Sept. 16 issue of Science.
     Ancient main belt asteroids identical in size to present-day asteroids in the Mars-Jupiter belt -- not comets -- hammered the inner rocky planets in a unique catastrophe that lasted for a blink of geologic time, anywhere from 20 million to 150 million years, they report in the Sept. 16 issue of Science.
     It was comets then, as now.
   • IMPACT OF GIANT METEOR FELT IN GEORGIA
     A layer of quartz grains found in an east Georgia kaolin mine have been traced to the impact of a giant asteroid that crashed near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay 35.5 million years ago. The 54-mile-wide crater left by the meteor, the sixth-largest in the world, has previously been identified as the source of a rare mineral called Georgiaite.
   • LOST WORLD FROZEN 14M YEARS AGO FOUND IN ANTARCTICA
     A lost world has been found in Antarctica, preserved just the way it was when it was frozen in time some 14 million years ago. A team working in an ice-free region has discovered the trove of ancient life in what must have been the last traces of tundra on the interior of the southernmost continent before temperatures began to drop relentlessly.
   • SCIENTISTS PINPOINT POLAR CATACLYSM DATE
     A 30-mile maze canyons in Antarctica was carved out of bedrock by the catastrophic draining of subglacial lakes during global warming between 12 million and 14 million years ago, according to university researchers who warn a similar event today could have serious environmental consequences.
     Syracuse University and Boston University say they found geological evidence to bracket the timing of the last major flooding and link it to a global warming trend at the time.
     The scientists pinpointed the timing of the last subglacial flood by dating volcanic ash preserved on bedrock surfaces, said Laura Webb, a professor of earth sciences at Syracuse who took part in the study.
     The ash could also have come from a comet impact, or one setting off a volcano.
   • STUDY ASSOCIATES ASTEROID OR COMET IMPACT WITH EXTINCTIONS IN ARGENTINA - 10 December 1998
     A new study shows that a previously unknown impact from an asteroid or comet coincides with the disappearance of 35 different types of ancient mammals and a flightless bird 3.3 million years ago. The impact may have directly caused the regional extinctions or triggered a climate change that led to the disappearance of the animals in what is now southeastern Argentina.
   • GRASS, PINE NEEDLES 10,400' UNDER GREENLAND ICE
     Ice core samples retrieve grass/pine needles which proves Greenland glacier formed 'very fast'. If confirmed, this will be the first organic material ever recovered from a deep ice-core drilling project. There is a big possibility that this material is several million years old -- from a time when trees covered Greenland,"
   • Meteor impact may have started Ice Ages - Sept. 19, 2012
     A huge meteor striking Earth 2.5 million years ago may have generated a massive tsunami and plunged the world into the Ice Ages, Australian researchers suggest.
     Scientists at the University of New South Wales say because the meteor -- more than a mile across - crashed into deep water in the southern Pacific Ocean, most researchers have discounted its potential for catastrophic impacts on coastlines around the Pacific rim or its capacity to destabilize the entire planet's climate system.
   • DID AN ASTEROID IMPACT TRIGGER THE ICE AGES? High concentrations of iridium in Upper Pliocene sediments about 2.3 million years old. Estimated size of the impacting object more than 0.5 km.
   • DEATH RAY EXTINCTION THEORY
     A death ray from space may have caused one of the Earth's worst mass extinctions 443 million years ago, it has been claimed. Scientists believe the pattern of trilobite extinctions matched the effects of a nearby gamma-ray burst.
   • OLDER THAN THE SUN, THE METEORITE SCIENTISTS CALL 'THE REAL TIME MACHINE'
     - Rock which hit lake is oldest object ever found
     -Tests reveal fragment created before solar system
     As lumps of rock go it looks much like any other, unexceptional despite the deep red of its cool, smooth surface. The pieces range in size from pea- sized lumps to larger fist-sized chunks. But today, scientists will announce this is no ordinary stone. Prised from a frozen lake in northern Canada, it has become a prime candidate for the oldest known object on Earth.
     The Tagish Lake meteorite was already regarded as exceptional because its mineral composition linked it to the earliest days of the formation of the solar system, more than 4.5bn years ago. The fragments of meteorite that still exist are among the most pristine in the world, as they were protected from contamination when they became wedged in blocks of lake ice.
     A red Kuiper Belt object?
7. PLEISTOCENE STRIKES AND NEANDERTHALS
   • * YOUNGER DRYAS IMPACTS GAIN MORE GLOBAL ATTENTION - 13 Dec 2021
     Tusk travel buddy from the Egypt 2020 Expedition, Jimmy Corsetti of Bright Insight, appeared last week on The Joe Rogan Experience, the most popular conversation on planet earth. The Younger Dryas Impact was a frequent subject. This single clip was viewed by over 3 million people.
     Not to be outdone, Comet Research Group resident Neo-Catastrophist astronomer, and popular Scottish author, Dr. Bill Napier, pre-published a suspense thriller on Kindle a couple of days ago devoted to the Younger Dryas Impact. The paperback is coming in 2022, but Bill decided to get ahead of the Netflix blockbuster "Don't Look Up!," and the attention it will bring to comet impacts.
   • Past Climate and Vegetation Changes in the Southwestern United States - ?
     During the last Ice Age, the southwestern United States was much wetter and cooler than it is today. In the Great Basin deep fresh-water lakes covered many of the now arid valleys (fig. 2) and the current Southwestern deserts supported plants and animals that are now restricted to higher elevations and more northerly latitudes (see "Land Use History of North America (LUHNA): The Paleobotanical Record"). Conversely, many of the modern desert species apparently could not live in this region and were presumably displaced southward to warmer climates. The massive Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered most of Canada and much of the northeastern United States apparently had a large effect on atmospheric circulation and pushed the westerlies far to the south relative to today. Consequently the southwestern United States received abundant precipitation throughout the year (Thompson and others, 1993).
     Effective moisture in the western United States (relative to today; modified from Thompson and others, 1993) for the Last Glacial Maximum (18,000 years ago [18 ka]), the late glacial period (12 ka), the early Holocene (9 ka), and the middle Holocene (6 ka). These reconstructions are based on lake level, fossil pollen, and packrat midden data.
   • LUHNA - The Paleobotanical Record - ?
     Figures 1 & 2 - As this comparison of modern and Pleistocene vegetation shows, southwestern landscapes have changed dramatically since the end of the last ice age, 12,000 years ago. During the last ice age, desert vegetation was restricted to the lower elevations (<300 m) in Death Valley and the mouth of the Colorado River. Hallmarks of the Sonoran Desert, such as the giant cactus, saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) and the palo verde (Cercidium), with its photosynthesizing bark, were displaced far south into Mexico. Creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), the dominant shrub of the Chihuahuan, Sonoran and Mojave deserts, had its northernmost populations along the Arizona-Sonora border. Extensive pinyon-juniper-oak woodlands, now restricted to the highlands, covered what are now desert elevations (300-1700 m). The extensiveness of spruce-fir, mixed-conifer or subalpine forests and woodlands during glacial times is evidenced by the fact that they covered much the same territory as modern pinyon- juniper woodlands, currently the third largest vegetation type in the U.S. (20 million hectares). The biggest surprise from the packrat midden record is the virtual absence of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), a tree that today extends from central Mexico along the axis of the Rockies into Canada. In the U.S., much of that range developed through migration during the last 10,000 years. Populations of this commercial species in the northern Rockies and western High Plains may represent arrivals within the last few millennia and perhaps the last few centuries. In these areas, increasing stand densities may be the consequence of natural expansion rather than fire suppression, or some combination of both.
   • A Cosmic Impact and the Beginning of Farming at Abu Hureyra in Syria - March 2021
     Then 12,800 years ago (10,800 BCE) a catastrophe struck. In its orbit around the Sun the Earth intercepted a fragmenting comet. Across much of the world explosions and firestorms incinerated the landscape. One of these airbursts took place near Abu ureyra itself. The explosion generated a blast of enormous heat that engulfed the village in flames, destroying it and its inhabitants.
     And that might have been the end of this story, except that a few villagers or their neighbors survived; perhaps they were away from the settlement foraging for food. They soon rebuilt the village, this time as a community of above-ground rectangular houses. But the comet impact caused the climate to change suddenly. It was now very cool and dry, sharply reducing the array of wild plants available for food. So the inhabitants took up farming to supplement their food supply, hus becoming one of the first communities anywhere to develop this new, world-changing economy.
   • * ITS UNDER THE ICE! THE EVIDENCE EVERYONE MISSED..RESEARCHER LEFT SPEECHLESS! - June 17, 2019
   • * UNEXPLAINED ANCIENT RUINS THAT REMAIN IN THE DEPTHS OF THE OCEAN - Jun 3, 2019
   • AFTERSHOCK: THE ANCIENT CATACLYSM THAT ERASED HUMAN HISTORY - Feb 7, 2019
   • AN ANCIENT FIREBALL TURNED MILES OF THE WORLD'S DRIEST DESERT INTO GLASS - Nov 03, 2021
     Dark silicate glass strewn across the Atacama Desert was created by an exploding comet around 12,000 years ago.
     About 12,000 years ago, intense heat turned Atacama's sandy soil into vast areas of glass stretching for 46.6 miles (75 kilometers), but researchers weren't sure what caused such a drastic change.
     The Atacama Desert is the driest desert region on Earth, with incredibly little moisture or precipitation. The fragmented desert glass contains tiny mineral fragments that are often found in meteorites that land on Earth.
     The minerals found in this glass matched up with particles collected by NASA's Stardust mission, which sampled a comet known as Wild 2. The researchers are confident that the minerals found in the Chilean desert are what's left after a comet similar to Wild 2 exploded over the sands and melted them.
   • MEXICO SHOULD BEWARE THE LITTLE-ICE-AGE CYCLE - Sep 15, 2017
     According to research by Dr. Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera of the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, falling solar radiation indicates that our planet is now entering a mini ice age, a mini ice age that will last between 60 and 80 years.
     Dr. Velasco Herrera bases his observation on the fact that many climatic events are cyclical.
     “Over the past 400,000 years, there have been extremely cold periods called ice ages, which last on average 100,000 years, as well as hot or interglacial periods lasting about 12,000 years. On our planet the cold periods are extremely long, while the hot periods are very short, “says Dr. Velasco Herrera.
   • NEW EXTINCTION EVENT DISCOVERED - June 26, 2017
     The international team investigated fossils of marine megafauna from the Pliocene and the Pleistocene epochs (5.3 million to around 9,700 years BC). "We were able to show that around a third of marine megafauna disappeared about three to two million years ago. Therefore, the marine megafaunal communities that humans inherited were already altered and functioning at a diminished diversity”, explains lead author Dr. Catalina Pimiento, who conducted the study at the Paleontological Institute and Museum of the University of Zurich.
   • Ice Age map helps predict the next mega drought - March 19, 2015
     Scientists have created the first comprehensive map of the period 21,000 years ago—known as the Last Glacial Maximum—to test and improve the global climate models used to predict how precipitation patterns will change.
     Map shows the position of the transition region between the wet and dry climate zones found by the new study.
     
     Map of the pluvial lakes that existed 17,000 years ago during the last ice age in Utah, Nevada, and southern California that were created by the high levels of precipitation that the region experienced during this period. (Credit: Wikipedia Commons)
   • JOE ROGAN EXPERIENCE #606 - RANDALL CARLSON - 2 Feb 2015
     Ice Age related data...Younger Dryas, etc.
   • 'SMOKING GUN' ON THE ICE AGE MEGAFAUNA EXTINCTIONS - 6 Feb. 2014
     Now we know that the loss of protein-rich forbs was likely a key player in the loss of the ice age megafauna. Interestingly one can also see our results in the perspective of the present climate changes. Maybe we get a hold on the greenhouse gases in the future. But don't expect the good old well-known vegetation to come back when it becomes cooler again after the global warming. It is not given that the 'old' ecosystems will re-establish themselves to the same extent as before the warming. It's not only climate that drives vegetation changes, but also the history of the vegetation itself and the mammals consuming it.
     So far the common image of much of the northern hemisphere during the latest Ice Age has been of a landscape dominated by grass steppe. The new results show this to be exaggerated. The landscape was far more diverse and dominated by protein- rich forbs. After the Ice Age the forbs became rarer and some of the large forb- eating mammals went extinct or near-extinct.
     Severe climate changes put an extreme stress on animals and plants. After the Last Glacial Maximum the composition of the ecosystems changed. New kinds of vegetation invaded – but without the large herbivores following. When debating the impact of climate change one should not expect the return of the former ecosystems even though the climate change may be reversed.
   • A DIFFERENT KIND OF CLIMATE CATASTROPHE
     A Comet Storm
     Imagine along with me for a moment. What say we take a great big comet, say 50 to 100 km wide, out of the Oort Cloud, or the Kuiper belt, and inject it into the inner solar system. And we park it an elliptical, Earth crossing orbit, and break it up into not so little pieces. Let’s give it enough time for tidal forces to break it up completely, and stretch it out a bit. Our average fragment Should be about the size of the Tunguska object. But they ranged from more than a half mile wide, all the way down to clouds of dust.
     Some time between 20,000, and 30,000 years ago a great comet 50 km to 100 km wide was thrown into the inner solar system. And it immediately began to break up. That disintegrating comet was the progenitor of the Taurid Complex. A family of objects in related, short period, Earth crossing orbits. And 12,900 years ago, just after the end of the last ice age, two large clusters of fragments from that monster, both with the fragment size, density, and distribution like we see in comets Linear, or SW-3. Had a celestial train wreck with this fair world of ours. The individual fragments of each cluster were so close, that in the heart of their respective impact zones, only the first fragments to fall, fell into cold atmosphere. The rest fell into the already superheated impact plumes of those that had gone before. And they just cranked up the heat And pressure.
   • WORLD'S OLDEST MAP: SPANISH CAVE HAS LANDSCAPE FROM 14,000 YEARS AGO -
     A stone tablet found in a cave in Abauntz in the Navarra region of northern Spain is believed to contain the earliest known representation of a landscape.
     Engravings on the stone, which measures less than seven inches by five inches, and is less than an inch thick, appear to depict mountains, meandering rivers and areas of good foraging and hunting.
     "We can't be sure what was intended in the making of the tablet but it was clearly important to those who populated the cave 13,660 years ago," said Ms Utrilla. "Maybe it was to record areas rich in mushrooms, birds' eggs, or flint used for making tools."
     The researchers believe it may also have been used as a storytelling device
   • ASTEROID IMPACT DESTROYS LEMURIA
     One of the possible explanations that resonates fairly well with the truth about the destruction of the large continent of Lemuria "Mu" located in the Pacific Ocean, as recorded in the Cosmic Archives are those put forth in Hindu stories about the fiery destruction of the "Pure Land".
     This paradisiacal garden continent was according to legends the real birthplace of humanity and the cradle of Culture. The Polynesians told of the destruction of their beautiful and wondrous home by a devastating volcanic eruption or cataclysmic destruction.
     There has been a similar theory postulated in regard to the destruction of Atlantis outlined in a book by Otto Muck called, "The Secret of Atlantis".
     In the book, he purported that an asteroid strike on the planet around 8,500 B.C. was responsible for the destruction of Atlantis. He speculated that the asteroids were miles wide and hit with the explosive force of thousands of hydrogen bombs.
   • ABOUT PELE
     Because Hawaii sits on the mountaintops of Lemuria, the Lemurian Goddess energy still remains here as a strong vibration. That is why people who come to Hawaii say that it feels so good here, like they have come ¡§home.¡¨ It is the memory of Lemuria within their cellular consciousness that dance with this feeling and vibration of love, which is our true essence.
   • EARTHQUEST NEWS - Vol. 9 No.1 (Summer 2006)
     None of these musings undermine the work of New Age cosmologists such as John Major Jenkins. What they do highlight is an apparent blind spot when it comes to considering the significance played by Cygnus in Olmec and Mayan cosmology, something that was first realized by archaeologist Marion Popenoe Hatch in a series of articles featured in THE CYGNUS MYSTERY. She seems philosophical that very few scholars exploring the cosmological world of these two important civilizations have ever really acknowledged her dedicated work in this field of study. I am convinced that Cygnus acted not just as an astronomical timekeeper for both the Olmec and Maya, but also as the herald and progenitor of the sun-egg, the (as yet unrecognized) role it plays in the cosmic events of 2012.
   • LEMURIA
     Lemuria is the name of a small continent located in the Pacific Ocean, which sank beneath the sea approximately twenty thousand years ago. Off the Lemurian coast lay the Lemurian Isles, which were controlled by human beings as late as the time of King Kull of Valusia, about 20,500 years ago.
   • THE LOST LANDS OF MU AND LEMURIA Lost Lands of Mu and Lemuria
     Lemuria and Mu are interchangeable names given to a lost land believed to have been located somewhere in either the southern Pacific or Indian Oceans. This ancient continent was apparently the home of an advanced and highly spiritual culture, perhaps the mother race of all mankind, but it sank beneath the waves many thousands of years ago as the result of a geological cataclysm of some kind.
     Blavatsky also describes survivors of the catastrophic destruction of Lemuria escaping to become the ancestors of some of the Aboriginal tribes of Australia. She maintained that she took all of her information regarding Lemuria from ¡¥The Book of Dzyan¡¦, supposed to have been written in Atlantis and shown to her by the Indian adepts known as ¡¥Mahatmas¡¦.
     Madame Blavatsky never claimed to have discovered Lemuria; in fact she refers to Philip Schlater coining the name Lemuria, in her writings. It has to be said that The Secret Doctrine is an extremely difficult book, a complex mixture of Eastern and Western cosmologies, mystical ramblings and esoteric wisdom, much of it not meant to be taken literally.
     Aboriginal art, artefacts and mythology have also been used to identify the Aborigines as prehistoric remnants of the Lemurians (following Blavatsky again), who somehow escaped the devastation of 20,000 or so years ago. Indeed, in some Theosophical publications of the first quarter of the 20th century Aborigines were described as the last of the Lemurians. However, the Aborigines of Australia had already been established on the continent for at least 30,000 years at the time of the supposed destruction of Lemuria, in fact they have perhaps the longest continuous cultural history of any people on Earth, so the theory of them having a Lemurian origin does not hold water.
   • WHAT IS AN INTERESTING LOSGT CIVILIZATION? Lemuria, aka Mu, has been suggested as the original Garden of Eden, it was /is the Motherland of humanity...
     There are many theories as to when Lemuria existed and they range from 10,000 plus to 1 million, to even 1.5 million years ago...
     Please note that Atlantis is also said to have existed around 10,000 years ago and Lemuria was far older than Atlantis..
     It is said to have been a vast realm of islands and archipelagoes that once sprawled across the Pacific Ocean..
     It was said to have been devastated by a "Warrior Wave", this is from the oral tradition of the Polynesian people...
     A major impact!
   • ATLANTIS, TIAMAT, PROTO-ENCKE, COMETS,& OTHER CATACLYSMIC THEORIES OF MYTHS
     Geo-climatologists found a huge climatic change around 3117 BC, called the Piora oscillation. This abrupt change in the climate was probably caused by a massive meteorite swarm (”seven heads and ten horns“), possibly from the break-up of a great comet Encke (”the Red Dragon“) in the inner parts of the Solar system.
     62,000 BC
     First sign of Sapiens Sapiens (modern man) buried with respect, in modern manner with red ochre, near Lake Mungo, Australia. Evidence suggests similar limited migrations reached the America's from West Africa.
     50,000 BC
     Next oldest discovery of Sapiens Sapiens, a child burial in Upper Egypt. Ethiopia key area for man.
     50,000 BC
     Genetic analysis of the male Y chromosome of all people living on the planet, suggest a common male sapiens sapiens ancestor at this date.
   • THE MYSTERY OF MAMMOTH TUSKS WITH IRON FILLINGS
     A giant meteor may have exploded over Alaska thousands of years ago, shooting out metal fragments like buckshot, some of which embedded in the tusks of woolly mammoths and the horns of bison. Simultaneously, a large chunk of the meteor hit Alaska south of Allakaket, sending up a dust cloud that blacked out the sun over the entire state and surrounding areas, killing most of the life in the area.
     Firestone also thinks he may have found the divot left by the ancient meteorite, an impact crater that is now occupied by a round body of water named Sithylemenkat Lake in the upper Kanuti River drainage. 13,000 years ago?
   • CREATIONISM SPECIAL: A BATTLE FOR SCIENCE'S SOUL
   • GREAT BEASTS PEPPERED FROM SPACE
     Startling evidence has been found which shows mammoth and other great beasts from the last ice age were blasted with material that came from space.
     Eight tusks dating to some 35,000 years ago all show signs of having being peppered with meteorite fragments.
     The ancient remains come from Alaska, but researchers also have a Siberian bison skull with the same pockmarks
     The team believes there must still be peppered tusks out there that can be dated to 13,000 years ago, and the hope is that the AGU presentation will prompt museums and collectors to look through their archives.
     "There should also be a layer of this same meteoritic material in the sedimentary record. It's probably very thin. If we can locate the right place and it hasn't been turbated, we should be able to find this layer; and it shouldn't be too different from the impact layer we found for the 13,000-year event," said Dr Firestone.
   • 40,000-YEAR-OLD FOOTPRINT OF FIRST AMERICANS
     But the discovery of footprints in the Valsequillo Basin by a British-led team provides new evidence that humans settled in the Americas as early as 40,000 years ago, suggesting that there were several migration waves at different times by different groups.
   • THE BARRINGER METEORITE CRATER
     The impact occurred about 50,000 years ago, when northern Arizona (and the rest of the world) was in the midst of an ice age. While northern Arizona is now an arid place, it was cooler and wetter at the time of the impact. Rather than desert scrub or grasslands, the terrain was covered with a forest.
     The meteorite which made it was composed almost entirely of nickel-iron, suggesting that it may have originated in the interior of a small planet. It was 150 feet across, weighed roughly 300,000 tons, and was traveling at a speed of 40,000 miles per hour. The force generated by its impact was equal to the explosion of 20 million tons of TNT.
   • METEOR CRATER FORMATION REVISITED
     The iron mass that created Meteor Crater 49,000 years ago was just the crumbled remains of a far larger rock body, scientists say.
   • METEOR IMPACT COVERS HUGE PORTION OF EARTH - January 10, 2020
     Health Editor's Note: The size of the crater left by this meteorite crash is astronomically huge. Perhaps this was the crash that caused the Mass Instinction? This is larger than the one in the Yucatan, right?…..Carol
     Crater From Giant Meteorite Strike Might Be Hidden Under Volcanic Plateau
     The first clue to the meteorite's impact site came from the bits of glassy debris, called tektites, that it launched into the air about 800,000 years ago. The tektites landed across Antarctica, Australia and Asia, so geologist Kerry Sieh searched for signs of the crater in satellite imagery. Sieh's search has taken years and led him down many dead-ends, Katherine Kornei reports for the New York Times, but ultimately a lava field in southern Laos turned up promising results. There, volcanic eruptions long ago covered the land in molten rock, building a layer of igneous rock up to 1,000 feet deep, which could have easily obscured the impact crater.
     Crater From Giant Meteorite Strike Might Be Hidden Under Volcanic Plateau - January 10, 2020
     By the new study's calculations, the meteorite was about 1.2 miles wide and created a crater 8 miles wide and 11 miles long. It would have struck our planet at a speed fast enough to melt the Earth beneath it, material that was thrown into the air to create tektites. The impact also would have sent boulders flying at 1,500 feet per second, Leslie Nemo writes for Discover, some of which Sieh spotted in a hill that was cut through by a road a few miles away from the suspected impact site.
   • MYSTERIOUS CRATER FROM PLANETARY CATASTROPHE THAT SCATTERED GLASS PIECES AROUND GLOBE DISCOVERED - 01.01.2020
     Almost a million years ago, a large meteorite impacted the Earth, throwing glass pieces known as tektites thousands of kilometres away, to the territories of what are now modern Australia, Southeast Asia, and Antarctica. Now, scientists are finally able to say where the mega-strike happened.
     The site where a large meteorite that hit Earth some 800,000 years ago, scattering small glass pieces thousands of kilometres away, is located where Laos is today, an international team of researchers have concluded, the German news agency DPA reports.
     As was discovered earlier, the mega-catastrophe happened around 790,000 years ago. The strike made terrestrial debris melt, hurling the pieces, which later solidified into tektites, over a tenth of the Earth's surface, namely Australia, Southeast Asia, and Antarctica.
     Their analyses suggest that the lava flowed over and near the suspected crater, pouring out after the impact. Gravity anomalies have been detected there, suggesting that there is a 17-by-13-kilometre crater under the surface. There are boulders several kilometres away from the suspected crater that are believed to have been ejected during the impact.
     Their conclusion is that one more space visitor hit the Earth around 790,000 years ago, as the examined glass bodies all originated from the same period. However, the tektites from Belize had a different chemical composition, which indicates that they might have originated from a different impact than the one in Asia.
   • MODERN HUMAN INVASION CAUSED NEANDERTHALS’ EXTINCTION - July 30, 2011
     Neanderthals departed Africa about 400,000 to 800,000 years ago, and subsequently evolved in lands that now comprise France, Spain, Germany and Russia. They are believed to have died out (or absorbed into the modern human population) about 30,000 years ago.
     "Faced with this kind of competition, the Neanderthals seem to have retreated initially into more marginal and less attractive regions of the continent and eventually -- within a space of at most a few thousand years -- for their populations to have declined to extinction -- perhaps accelerated further by sudden climatic deterioration across the continent around 40,000 years ago."
     Neanderthals were thought to have created symbolic objects such as jewelry and to have formulated language, making them the closest known thing to humans. Considerable debate remains as to whether they are subsets of the same species or if they are distinct.
     The human/Neanderthal dichotomy was overturned in December of 2010, when a team of researchers discovered fossil evidence of a third humanoid species, dubbed the "Denisovans," that roamed Asia and may be the ancient forefathers of people in Papau New Guinea
   • NEANDERTHALS HAD DEEP SENSE OF COMPASSION, NEW STUDY SUGGESTS - 05 Oct 2010
     Neanderthals have been unjustly maligned as heartless brutes, according to researchers who claim the primitive humans possessed a deep-seated sense of compassion.
   • VOLCANOES WIPED OUT THE NEANDERTHALS? - Sep 21, 2010
     Volcanoes wiped out the Neanderthals some 40,000 years ago, suggest archeologists, setting the stage for modern humans in Europe.
     Stumpy but strong, the Neanderthals disappear from the European fossil record by about 30,000 years ago, replaced about that time by modern-looking humans. In the upcoming October Current Anthropology journal, researchers led by Liubov Golovanova of Russia's ANO Laboratory of Prehistory in St. Petersburg report that volcanic dust deposits in a cave in the Caucasus point to an ecological catastrophe wiping out our Neanderthal cousins, not warfare or competition for food.
     "On the basis of these data, we offer the hypothesis that the Neanderthal demise occurred abruptly (on a geological timescale) at around 40,000 BP (before present) after the most powerful volcanic activity in western Eurasia during the period of Neanderthal evolutionary history. We further hypothesize that this catastrophe not only drastically destroyed the ecological niches of Neanderthal populations but also caused their mass physical depopulation in most of their habitation areas across Europe and the Near East. This loss of viable source populations may have significantly contributed to the eventual extinction of Neanderthals throughout their range," says the study.
     My comment on the paper is that it should be kept in mind that modern humans had occupied large portions of Europe several thousand years before the volcanic eruptions that took place 40,000 years ago. At the most, the volcanic eruptions (and their impact on climate) at that time were a contributing factor to the final extinction of the Neanderthals. It has long been suspected that isolated pockets of Neanderthals survived in the extreme geographic corners of Europe-- Spain in the southwest and the Caucasus Mountains in the southeast--until the very end.
   • SUPERVOLCANO ERUPTION -- IN SUMATRA -- DEFORESTED INDIA 73,000 YEARS AGO - 23-Nov-2009
     A new study provides "incontrovertible evidence" that the volcanic super- eruption of Toba on the island of Sumatra about 73,000 years ago deforested much of central India, some 3,000 miles from the epicenter, researchers report.
     The volcano ejected an estimated 800 cubic kilometers of ash into the atmosphere, leaving a crater (now the world's largest volcanic lake) that is 100 kilometers long and 35 kilometers wide. Ash from the event has been found in India, the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea.
     The bright ash reflected sunlight off the landscape, and volcanic sulfur aerosols impeded solar radiation for six years, initiating an "Instant Ice Age" that – according to evidence in ice cores taken in Greenland – lasted about 1,800 years.
     During this instant ice age, temperatures dropped by as much as 16 degrees centigrade (28 degrees Fahrenheit), said University of Illinois anthropology professor Stanley Ambrose, a principal investigator on the new study with professor Martin A.J. Williams, of the University of Adelaide. Williams, who discovered a layer of Toba ash in central India in 1980, led the research.
     The dryness probably also indicates a drop in temperature, Ambrose said, "because when you turn down the temperature you also turn down the rainfall."
     "This is unambiguous evidence that Toba caused deforestation in the tropics for a long time," Ambrose said. This disaster may have forced the ancestors of modern humans to adopt new cooperative strategies for survival that eventually permitted them to replace Neanderthals and other archaic human species, he said.
   • NASA FINDS 22-MILE WIDE CRATER UNDER GREENLAND ICE (Video) - 12.02.2019
     The newly-discovered object is located only 114 miles away from a similar one discovered in November.
     A NASA glaciologist has discovered what might be a 22-mile meteor impact crater buried beneath the ice in northwest Greenland. It is unknown when the crater formed, but the scientists believe it happened more than 80,000 (79,000) years ago, according to a Daily Mail report.
   • CLIMATE HISTORY: EXPLORING CLIMATE EVENTS AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
     The Past 100,000 Years - Did Climate Challenge the Creativity of Early Homo Sapiens?
     For example, were early Homo sapiens challenged by abrupt climate change in the form of volcanic winter that lasted for many years? That is what Stanley H. Ambrose and some of his colleagues suspect may have happened during a critical time in human development. What is known is that some 71,000 years ago, an eruption of Mount Toba on the present day Indonesian island of Sumatra, spewed some 2,800 km3 of material into the atmosphere. This compares with less than 1 km3 from Mount St. Helens.
     Ambrose suggests that this event could have thrown the planet into a six year volcanic winter and 1000 year instant ice age which could have reduced human populations, causing population bottlenecks that accelerated the differentiation of isolated human populations and encouraged increased cooperation within tribal groups for survival
   • SUMMARY OF 100,000 YEARS - 60000 Years Ago
     Homo sapiens enter Australia and begin to use fire. Note: almost all animals are afraid of fire. Humans using fire signifies sentience.
   • CLIMATE HISTORY: EXPLORING CLIMATE EVENTS AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
     The Past 10,000 years: Glacial Retreat, Agriculture and Civilization
     "Now you're able to put human evolution in a climatic framework. You can ask, Why didn't human beings make civilization fifty thousand years ago? You know that they had just as big brains as we have today. When you put it in a climatic framework, you can say, "Well, it was the ice age. And also this ice age was so climatically unstable that each time you had the beginning of a culture they had to move. Then comes the present interglacial-- ten thousand years of very stable climate. The perfect conditions for agriculture. If you look at it, it's amazing. Civilizations in Persia, in China, and in India start at the same time, maybe six thousand years ago. They all developed writing and they all developed religion and they all built cities, all at the same time, because the climate was stable. I think that if the climate would have been stable fifty thousand years ago it would have started then. But they had no chance."
   • DID CLIMATE KILL OFF THE NEANDERTHALS? - 13 February 2009
     Climate change, we're told, poses the single gravest threat to the survival of our species.
     And if the experience of our ancient relatives the Neanderthals is anything to go by, we should take note of the warnings. Recent research has suggested that climate change may have been the killer blow that finished off our closest evolutionary cousins.
     For about 400,000 years, the Neanderthals dominated Europe, hunting big game such as mammoth and bison. These hardy cavemen and cavewomen survived one Ice Age after another. But eventually, their luck ran out. For reasons which remain unclear, Neanderthal populations went into terminal decline. By 35,000 years ago, the Neanderthals had vanished from most parts of Europe. But in 2006, scientists dropped a bombshell. They had found evidence that a small population of survivors clung on in Iberia - modern Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar - until much more recently.
     This evidence came from radiocarbon dates obtained from Neanderthal campfires in Gorham's Cave, a natural shelter cut into the Rock of Gibraltar. Professor Clive Finlayson led the research: "You had Neanderthals - in our opinion - quite late from some of the dates; and by late we're talking in terms of 24,000, some would say 28,000. Professor Finlayson, who has written a book on the problem called The Humans Who Went Extinct, says: "What we found was a climatic event in the marine core, taken offshore from the Iberian margin. We found confirmation of other people's results that there was a moment when the sea surface temperatures are the lowest for the previous quarter of a million years.
   • (13) ANOTHER HUGE IMPACT DISASTER ~20,000 YEARS BP?
     The Arizona Crater (also known as the Iturralde Structure) is a suspected crater from an impactor which struck northern Bolivia approximately 20,000 years ago. The feature is believed to have been caused by a short period comet striking at 70 kilometres per second and splattering into the muddy alluvial flood plain in the Lower Amazon jungle. The impact created a circular depression which is now roughly 8 kilometres across and 3 metres deep.
   • EVIDENCE FOR A GIANT NEANDERTHALS SEA WAVE A great meteor impact, a submarine volcanic explosion or a giant submarine landslide are good possibilities. Highsea stands are rejected by the authors in favor of a single episode of catastrophic waves about 100,000 years ago.
   • CSI STONE AGE: DID HUMANS KILL NEANDERTHALS? - Jul. 24, 2009 It is one of the world's oldest cold cases. Sometime between 50,000 and 75,000 years ago, a Neanderthal male known to scientists as Shanidar 3 received a wound to his torso, limped back to his cave in what is now Iraq and died several weeks later. When his skeleton was pieced together in the late 1950s and early '60s, scientists were stumped by a rib wound that almost surely killed him, hypothesizing that it could have been caused by a hunting accident or even a fellow Neanderthal. New research suggests that Shanidar 3 may have had a more familiar killer: a human being.
   • SKULL DETAILS SUGGEST NEANDERTHALS WERE NOT HUMANS
     Although many scientists think Neanderthals were a subspecies, which could have interbred with Homo sapiens, new research appears to confirm the more widely held view that Neanderthals and modern humans were significantly different, enough to qualify as separate species.
   • STUDY: NEANDERTHALS HAD MANUAL DEXTERITY
   • HIGH NOTES OF THE SINGING NEANDERTHALS
     Early Humanoids 'Intelligent And Emotionally Complex'
   • HIGH NOTES OF THE SINGING NEANDERTHALS
     "They must have been able to communicate complex ideas and even spirituality. Their anatomy suggests that pitch and melody would have played a key role,"
   • NEANDERTHAL MAN FLOATED INTO EUROPE, SAY SPANISH RESEARCHERS
     Although the scientists have not yet reached definite conclusions, they say the evidence that Neanderthal man mastered some primitive techniques for crossing the sea into Europe from the coast near Ceuta looks promising.
     If the theory could be proved, and a two-pronged arrival of Neanderthal man accepted, it would help solve some of the mysteries thrown up by prehistoric sites around Europe.
   • BRITAIN’S LAST NEANDERTHALS WERE MORE SOPHISTICATED THAN WE THOUGHT “The tools we’ve found at the site are technologically advanced and potentially older than tools in Britain belonging to our own species, Homo sapiens,?says Dr Matthew Pope of Archaeology South East based at the UCL Institute of Archaeology. “It’s exciting to think that there’s a real possibility these were left by some of the last Neanderthal hunting groups to occupy northern Europe. The impression they give is of a population in complete command of both landscape and natural raw materials with a flourishing technology - not a people on the edge of extinction.?
   • ANCIENT SKULL HAS BOTH NEANDERTHAL, MODERN CHARACTERISTICS
     A strange ancient skull recently uncovered adds to mounting evidence that humans and Neanderthals interbred and suggests that humans evolved considerably after settling the European continent some 40,000 years ago.
     Modern humans emerged from Africa about 150,000 years ago, according to the leading theory (which has been challenged in recent years). The newfound skull is thought to be from sometime in the first 5,000 years of human habitation of Europe.
   • NEANDERTHALS WERE CANNIBALS, STUDY CONFIRMS
     Neanderthals suffered periods of starvation and may have supplemented their diet through cannibalism, according to a study of remains from northwest Spain.
     Paleobiologists studied samples from eight 43,000-year-old Neanderthal skeletons excavated from an underground cave in El Sidrón, Spain since 2000. The study sheds light on how Neanderthals lived before the arrival of modern humans in Europe.
   • NEANDERTHALS 'MATED WITH MODERN HUMANS'- 21 April 1999
     A hybrid skeleton showing features of both Neanderthal and early modern humans has been discovered, challenging the theory that our ancestors drove Neanderthals to extinction.
     And Dr Robert Foley of Cambridge University told the BBC: "The fossil evidence as we currently understand it doesn't show the signs of hybrids between neanderthals and modern humans, so it would be a novel and unusual find." The Iberian peninsula is an area where there was a significant overlap in time and space between Neanderthal and modern man. They could have coexisted for as long as 10,000 years," he said.
   • OFFICIAL: NEANDERTHAL MAN WAS NOT A HAIRY OAF BUT A SENSITIVE KINDA GUY
   • WHAT DID WE DO TO WIPE OUT NEANDERTHALS?
   • (7) NEANDERTHALS & MODERN HUMAN COEXISTED & HAD GOOD FUN
     It appears that Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans in central Europe for thousands of years -- and very likely mated with them -- according to new radiocarbon dating by an international team of scientists.
     Using direct accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating, team member Paul Pettitt and colleagues at Oxford University in England determined that two pieces of Neanderthal skulls from the Vindija cave site are between 28,000 and 29,000 years old. These new Croatian dates refute previous evidence indicating central European Neanderthals had disappeared as early as 34,000 years ago.
   • STUDY: HUMANS, NEANDERTHALS DID NOT MATE
   • NEANDERTHAL LOVE: SCIENTISTS SPLIT OVER HOW MUCH MATING OCCURRED
   • DID HUMANS EVOLVE IN FITS AND STARTS?
   • (11) DID ICE AGE CULTURES LOSE TECHNOLOGICAL SKILLS ? - 7 February 2000
     CHAMPAIGN, Ill. -- Archaeologists have discovered what the well-dressed Ice Age woman wore on ritual occasions. Her outfit, however, including accessories, doesn't resemble anything Wilma Flintstone ever wore, or, for that matter, any of our carved-in-stone conceptions of "paleofashion."
     Soffer, a professor of anthropology at the University of Illinois and a pioneer in the study of Upper Paleolithic life ways, compared the impressions to the representation of clothing on the so-called "Venus" figurines, which also date to the Gravettian period, roughly 25,000 years ago.
   • DISCOVERY CASTS DOUBT ON BERING LAND BRIDGE THEORY
     Using radiocarbon dating, scientists found that the Ushki site, the remains of a community of hunters clustered around Ushki Lake in northeastern Russia, appears to be only about 13,000 years old, 4,000 years younger than originally thought. The new date places the Ushki settlement in the same time period as the Clovis site, an ancient community found in New Mexico, making it highly unlikely that people could have traversed the thousands of miles from Siberia in such a short period.
   • TROUBLED TIMES The Giza Plateau
     A documentary shown on public TV in the early 90's called The Mystery of The Sphinx with Charlton Heston, demonstrated that long-term water erosion evidence on the Sphinx pushed the date of its construction to beyond 11,000BC; when the Egyptian climate permitted long periods of rain. That date matches up closely to the time of the Great Flood. Sitchin points out in his book, The Wars of Gods and Men, that numerous Egyptian texts discuss a period after the Great Flood when "gods" helped the Egyptians construct canals, drainage systems, dikes, etc. to reclaim the flooded Egyptian plain. The gods were the Anunnaki.
   • TROUBLED TIMES **Asian Hall of Records
     In Rampa's first book, The Third Eye (1956), he lends corroboration to physical evidence of the Anunnaki themselves. . . Rampa was first shown 3 uncovered black stone coffins. . . was startled to see the bodies of 2 men and one women; nude, and completely covered in gold leaf . The woman was 10 feet tall and the larger of the 2 men was 15 feet. The elderly monk said: "My son, look upon these. They were gods in our land in the days before the mountains came. They walked our country when seas washed our shores., and when different stars were in the sky."
     Tibetan monk, physician, and writer T. Lobsang Rampa, reports on pages 88-97 in his 1963 book The Cave of The Ancients that while still a young boy and trainee, he was taken by a group of monks to a highly concealed crevice entrance far up in the Tibetan mountains. The entrance led to a huge, cavernous interior. The interior was illuminated with artificial lighting in which the "bulbs" were ice cold to the touch. Spread throughout the smooth-walled rooms were many strange machines that seemed to be in working condition, but the monks could not understand their function or purpose. One oval shaped device allowed the viewer to place his head within its shell, whereby he could both hear and see different animals, music, etc.; a sort of visual encyclopedia of Earthly life (some alien contactees have reported being taken into such cavernous locations deep within the Earth and shown similar Halls of Remembrances). Later, they entered another room with a machine that allowed them to view a holographic "movie" with sound and narration explaining that the machines were working models left as part of a time capsule/hall of records explaining the history of these pre-diluvian advanced civilization which spiritually declined, misused their technology and brought about their demise. The holograph revealed cities and forests disappearing in a twinkling of an eye due to massive earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, atmospheric fire storms, tidal waves, etc.
   • California during the last Glacial Maximum - AUG 19, 2009
     Most in the science community are united in the belief that California was a cool and wet region during the last glacial maximum (18 kya BP). While it is relatively easy to understand why California was cool during the last ice age, discerning why California was predominantly wet is a more challenging exercise.
     This hub will examine California’s climate during the last glacial maximum, and in the process verify the cool and wet interpretation given by the scientific community. If the experts are correct, we should find lines of evidence to support their interpretation.
     This hub does not endeavor to provide an exhaustive analysis of California’s ice age conditions, and indeed is bounded by the rather limited quantities of the region’s ice age data sets. Moreover, past climatic conditions will be depicted in a non-quantitative manner, which is more appropriate for the short confines of this hub.
   • THE CAROLINA BAYS: NEW EVIDENCE POINTS TO A KILLER COMET - September 9, 2008
     "I saw these odd-looking ellipses on it," Howard recalls, "and I said, 'What in the world are those, senator?' and he said, 'Oh, meteor holes.' "
     Other markers found in the Carolina bays include spiky glasslike pieces of carbon; fullerenes, which are round objects that resemble soccer balls because of their six-sided pattern; helium-3, an isotope not found naturally on this planet; and hollow balls of carbon.
     The clincher, as far as West is concerned, is nanodiamonds, so named for a good reason - 10,000 would fit across the width of a human hair.
     "What we have found is, several big Carolina bays are lined with diamonds," he said. "This is the first time extraterrestrial materials have been found lining the bays."
     West has found diamonds inside the carbon spherules and trapped in the glasslike carbon. He says that suggests, but does not yet prove, that an extraterrestrial impact created the bays.
     "Even though the diamonds are the strongest of those 14 markers, it's the collective weight of all 14 of them that's important," West said. "It's very difficult to argue that all 14 of them, in the same layer across two continents, is accidental.
   • CORRELATION OF NEBRASKA BAYS WITH CAROLINA BAYS & SAGINAW IMPACT.
     
     Vectors to the Carolina and Nebraska bays.
     Saginaw Impact Structure
     Our analysis correlates numerous proposed ejecta structures - including the Carolina bays and the Goldsboro Ridge - to a cometary impact event that struck the Illinoian-era ice shield approximately 140,000 years ago.
   • CAROLINA BAY - Wikipedia
     Impact event
     After considerable debate and research, geologists determined the depressions were too shallow to be and lacked evidence of impact features. Reports of magnetic anomalies turned out not to show consistency across the sites. There were no meteorite fragments, shatter cones or planar deformation features. None of the necessary evidence for hyperspeed impacts was found. The conclusion was to reject the theory that the Carolina bays were created by impacts of asteroids or comets
     A new type of extraterrestrial impact hypothesis was proposed as the result of interest by both popular writers and professional geologists in the possibility of a terminal Pleistocene extraterrestrial impacts, including the Younger Dryas Impact hypothesis. It said that the Carolina Bays were created by a low density comet exploding above or impacting on the Laurentide ice sheet about 12,900 years ago. However, this theory has been discredited by OSL dating of the rims of the Carolina bays, paleoenvironmental records obtained from cores of Carolina bay sediments, and other research that shows that many of them are as old as, or older than, 60,000 to 140,000 BP
   • THE CASE FOR THE YOUNGER DRYAS EXTRATERRESTRIAL IMPACT EVENT - October 27, 2009
     At the base of the black mat at 9 Clovis-age sites in North America and a site in Belgium numerous extraterrestrial impact markers were found including magnetic grains highly enriched in iridium, magnetic microspherules, vesicular carbon spherules enriched in cubic, hexagonal, and n-type nanodiamonds, glass- like carbon containing Fullerenes and nanodiamonds, charcoal, soot, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The same impact markers were found mixed throughout the sediments of 15 Carolina Bays, elliptical depressions along the Atlantic coast, whose parallel major axes point towards either the Great Lakes or Hudson Bay.
   • CAROLINA BAYS FORMED FROM SLOW-SPEED GLACIER ICE IMPACTS - 2013-07-03
     
     Trajectories of ejected glacier icearolina-bays-formed-from-slow-speed-glacier- ice-impacts.html
     According to a recent theory, during an ice age, a meteorite or comet struck the massive glaciers that covered the Great Lakes region. The catastrophe caused the extinction large animals that lived in North America at that time. Thus far, no meteorite fragments from such an impact have been found. The formation of the Carolina Bays has been claimed to be one consequence of the extraterrestrial impact. A meteorite strike on the Laurentide ice sheet would have sent enormous ice boulders from the glaciers, many as big as two football fields, all the way from central Michigan to the Carolinas and Georgia. The impacts of the huge chunks of ice formed shallow craters that became the Carolina Bays.
   • INTERPRETING CAROLINA BAYS AS GLACIER ICE IMPACTS
     The origin of the Carolina Bays remains a mystery more than eighty years after their discovery. This paper explores the hypothesis that the Carolina Bays were formed as the result of impacts of glacial ice ejected when a meteorite struck the Laurentide ice sheet in the Great Lakes region. A new impact model describes the elliptical Carolina Bays as conic sections representing the intersection of the tilted conical craters formed by the oblique entry of the glacier chunks with the level surface of the Earth. Melting of the ice impactors created pools that became shallower through viscous relaxation of the substrata and deposits of terrestrial sediments. The impact model can be used to predict the location where stones carried by the glacial ice impactors may have been deposited. The high density of the impacts indicates a possible local extinction event, but this paper does not speculate on the time frame when this would have occurred. Photographs of the experimental tests of the model are presented.
     If the Carolina Bays were created by the proposed impacts, any fauna living in the central and eastern United States at that time would have seen a blinding flash followed by seismic shocks approximately four minutes later. It would have been almost impossible to avoid being hit by the barrage of enormous ice boulders seven minutes after the flash. Any survivors would have found their habitat destroyed. A local extinction event could have easily occurred under these circumstances, even without considering fires and other effects associated with the meteorite impact.
   • CAROLINA BAYS GOUGED INTO THE GROUND AT A MAGNETIC REVERSAL - September 30, 2011
     Scientists estimate that there could be more than two million Carolina bays (sometimes under different names) spread across the United States from Florida to New Jersey to Texas.
     Today, the general consensus is that these massive elliptical scars were somehow created by a comet or meteorite exploding above the earth.
   • RESEARCHERS: GREENLAND REALLY WAS GREEN!
     The DNA, dated to between 450,000 and 800,000 years ago, may be the oldest yet recovered, according to the team. DNA found previously in the Siberian permafrost has been dated to 300,000 to 400,000 years ago.
     However, because of uncertainties in interpreting the age estimates, they could not rule out the possibility that the newly found DNA dates to the last interglacial, 130,000 to 116,000 years ago.
   • DNA REVEALS GREENLAND'S LUSH PAST
     Armies of insects once crawled through lush forests in a region of Greenland now covered by more than 2,000m of ice. DNA extracted from ice cores shows that moths and butterflies were living in forests of spruce and pine in the area between 450,000 and 800,000 years ago.
   • HUGE IMPACT CRATER FOUND IN EGYPT
     A giant crater made by a meteorite impact millions of years ago has been discovered in Egypt's western desert.
   • (5) EXPLODING STAR STRAFED EARTH - 13 February 2002
     Two million years ago, many marine creatures, such as bivalve molluscs, died out suddenly all over the planet. As mass extinctions go, this was a mild one. But no one knows what caused it.
     Benítez and his colleagues think that a nearby supernova at this time could have showered the Earth with cosmic rays. These charged subatomic particles collide with atoms in the air, initiating chemical reactions. Copious cosmic rays are thought to produce nitrogen monoxide, which can destroy ozone molecules.
     The researchers calculate that a supernova 130 light years away could have thinned the ozone layer by up to 60 per cent, exposing marine organisms to ultraviolet rays from the Sun. This could have killed off plankton, and thence the molluscs that live off them.
     Large meteorites passing through the atomosphere produce large quanties of nitrous oxide, an obvious source of this chemical.
   • FOREVER YOUNG! METEORITE CRATER SHEDS LIGHT ON EARTH'S REAL AGE - 01.01.2020
     After studying rocks and a dune at one of the world's most stunning geological landmarks, Australia's Wolfe Creek Crater, a team of researchers concluded that a meteorite hit the site 120,000 years ago - 180,000 years later than previously thought. This could cast doubt on the widely-accepted estimate that Earth is 4.6 billion years old.
     The discovery that Australia's Wolfe Creek Crater might be 120,000 years old, not 300,000 as was thought before, suggests that Earth could be much younger than believed, the German outlet Futurezone.de reports.
     If a crater is younger than expected, the number of objects hitting Earth increases and the age of the planet decreases. It has been estimated that meteorites or similar celestial bodies strike our planet approximately every 180 years, including the latest strikes, one in a Siberian forest near the Tunguska River at the beginning of the 20th century and the other also in Siberia, near the city of Chelyabinsk, in 2013.
     The outlet notes that the discovery in Australia, which has shown that earlier estimates were mistaken, could mean that other craters in our solar system that have been examined so far may be of a completely different age, potentially proving calculations of the age of the Earth and other planets wrong.
   • QUEBEC CRATER IS OUT OF THIS WORLD Scientists hope to unlock 120,000 years of secrets about climate change from site revered by Inuit for clear waters
     The four-country expedition has just returned with sediments from the crater, formed 1.3 million years ago when a meteorite crashed to Earth with 8,500 times the force of the Hiroshima atomic bomb.
     The crater was later renamed New Quebec Crater and, finally, Pingualuit Crater.
     Diameter: 3.44 km
     Depth (total): 400 m
     Depth (lake): 267 m
     The crater is considered a scientific treasure trove because it's one of the deepest lakes in North America, fed almost exclusively by the skies above.
   • THE PLEISTOCENE EPOCH (~1.8 million-11,000 years ago)
     But fossils of Ice Age animals lie strewn about on or near the surface of the earth around the world. Mummified camels and ground sloths have been found in the American Southwest and South America. Remains of mammoths still bearing hair and flesh have been retrieved from Alaska and Siberia. Just about every county in every state in the United States probably has petrified wood representing trees that grew during the Pleistocene.
     Comet strikes quickly bring on deep freezes.
   • HUGE ANTARCTIC CRATERS REVEAL ASTEROID STRIKE or ANTARCTIC CRATERS REVEAL ASTEROID STRIKE
     Professor Frans van der Hoeven, from Delft University in the Netherlands, told the conference that the evidence showed that an asteroid measuring between three and seven miles across had broken up in the atmosphere and five large pieces had hit the Earth, creating multiple craters over an area measuring 1,300 by 2,400 miles. But the climatic conditions were different at the time of the strike - about 780,000 years ago - from when the asteroid that is believed to have wiped out the dinosaurs struck Yucatan in Mexico. The Antarctica strike occurred during an ice age, so even tidal waves would have been weakened to mere ripples by the calming effect of icebergs on the ocean. One thing that did happen at exactly the same time was the reversing of the Earth's magnetic field. Amen! It is more common for comets to fragment as they are loosely bound together. The early Pleistocene extends to the Brunhes-Matuyama paleomagnetic boundary (780,000 years ago).
   • Multiple meteors struck the Earth 790,000 years ago - 23 Feb 2016
     A new analysis of tektites, gravel-sized objects made of natural glass and formed from terrestrial debris ejected when meteorites collide with the Earth's surface, has revealed that multiple cosmic impacts took place in various parts of the world approximately 790,000 years ago.
   • ASTEROID IMPACTS IN ANTARCTICA - 28 April 2011
     In a controversial study, gravity maps of the Antarctic continent have revealed what could be multiple asteroid impact sites.
     Weihaupt thinks the number of anomalies means ancient Antarctica may have been peppered with a shotgun blast of space rocks up to 2 km across.
     When did the impact occur? "That's a tricky question," Weihaupt says. A definitive answer would require drilling all the way through the ice to the underlying rocks.
     But impacts produce clouds of tiny particles called tektites (and smaller 'mirotectites') that later fall back to Earth. These have been found in Australia and in parts of Antarctica, in two layers, one dated to about 700,000 years ago, and the other to 481,000 years ago.
   • (6) DID DISASTER KILL OFF ALASKAN HORSE? HUMANS EXONERATED FOR LATE PLEISTOCENE EXTINCTION & CLIMATE 'KILLED' ALASKAN HORSE
     Researchers found the horses shrank in size before their extinction 12,500 years ago, which fits with the theory that they did not have enough to eat.
     Humans were unlikely to have had a hand in the horses' demise, they claim, because fossil records show man had hardly arrived on the scene by then.
     This extinction event seems to have occurred near the time of impacts from the A': Cl-1 cluster's passage.